Lecture 1b
Data Models
Reference Textbook: An Introduction to Database
Systems
Eighth Edition
C.J.Date
Lecture 1b – Overview
Definitions
Evolution of Data Models
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Data Models
Data model is an abstract model that describes how data is represented and
used
OR
Data model is a collection of logical constructs used to represent the data
structure and the data relationships found within the database.
Two Categories of Database Models:
– Logical or Conceptual models focus on the logical nature of the data
representation. They are concerned with what is represented rather than
how it is represented.
– Physical or Implementation models place the emphasis on how the
data are represented in the database or on how the data structures are
implemented.
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Data Models
Numerous logical data models have been proposed,
under two main groups:
- Object-based models
entity-relationship, object-oriented, semantic,
functional, ...
- Record based models
relational, network, hierarchical, ...
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The Evolution of Data Models
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The Hierarchical Model—Evolution
Developed in the 1960s to manage large
amounts of data for manufacturing projects
Information Management System (IMS)
– World’s leading mainframe hierarchical database
system in the 1970s and early 1980s
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Hierarchical Structure-Characteristics
Logically represented by an upside down tree
– Each parent can have many children
– Each child has only one parent
Tree is defined by path that traces parent segments to
child segments, beginning from the left
Hierarchical path
– Ordered sequencing of segments tracing hierarchical structure
Preorder traversal or hierarchic sequence
– “Left-list” path
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A Hierarchical Structure
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Hierarchical Databases
Customer Data
Name Address Phone Pointer to Checking Pointer to Auto
Acct. Data Loan Data
Maria Chavez 1441 Adams Court 605-777-8992
John Severson 8988 Grover Road 605-898-2314
Harold Brown 3511 Pluto Drive 605-666-3298
Checking Account Data
Acct. Number Current Balance Date Last
Transaction
986-335 445.11 07/11/03
988-310 2988.44 07/01/03
355-822 898.14 06/15/03
Auto Loan Data
Acct. Number Current Balance Date Last Pmt
100988 5676 06/15/03
101732 1545.33 07/01/03
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Hierarchical Model
Foundation for current data models
Advantages
– Conceptual simplicity
– Database security and integrity
– Data independence
– Efficiency
Disadvantages
– Complex implementation
– Difficult to manage
– Lack of standards
– Lacks structural independence
– Relationships do not conform to 1:M form
10 – No standards for how to implement
Child with Multiple Parents
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Network Model
• Created to represent complex data relationships more effectively
• Improve database performance
• Impose a database standard
Resembles hierarchical model
– Record may have more than one parent
Collection of records in 1:M relationships
Each record can have multiple parents
– Composed of sets
– Each set has owner record and member record
– Member may have several owners
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A Network Data Model
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Network Data Model
Advantages
– Conceptual simplicity
– Handles more relationship types
– Data access flexibility
– Promotes database integrity
– Data independence
– Conformance to standards
Disadvantages
– System complexity
– Lack of ad hoc query capability placed burden on programmers to
generate code for reports
– Structural change in the database could produce havoc in all
application programs
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Relational Model
Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970
Considered ingenious but impractical in 1970
Conceptually simple
Computers lacked power to implement the relational model
Today, microcomputers can run sophisticated relational
database software
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Relational Data Models – Basic Structure
Relational database is perceived as collection of tables.
Each table consists of series of row/column intersections.
Tables (or relations) are related to each other by sharing a
common entity characteristic.
Relationship type is often shown in a relational schema.
Table yields complete data and structural independence.
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Linking Relational Tables
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A Relational Schema
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Relational Model (continued)
SQL-based relational database application involves three parts:
– User interface
Allows end user to interact with data
– Set of tables stored in database
Each table is independent from another
Rows in different tables related based on common
values in common attributes
– SQL “engine”
Executes all queries
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Relational Model
– Advantages
Structural independence
Improved conceptual simplicity
Easier database design, implementation, management, and use
Ad hoc query capability (SQL)
Powerful database management system
– Disadvantages
Substantial hardware and system software overhead
Possibility of poor design and implementation
Potential “islands of information” problems
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Entity-Relationship Data Model
– Introduced by Chen in 1976
– One of the most widely accepted graphical data
modeling tools.
– Graphically represents data as entities and their
relationships in database structure.
– Complements the relational data model concepts.
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Entity Relationship Model - Basic Structure
Entity-Relationship model represented as entity/relationship(E/R)
diagram (see fig. 1.6, page 12)
An entity is represented by a rectangle:
- Entity is an object represented in a database (for example1.6,
Employees, Projects, Departments and so on are various objects)
- Each entity is described by a set of properties (Properties
describes particular characteristics of the entity)
- Relationship is represented by a diamond connected to the
related entities.
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Entity and Relationships
– Types of Relationships:
One-to-many relationships (1:M)
– A painter paints many different paintings, but each one of them is
painted by only that painter.
PAINTER (1) paints PAINTING (M)
Many-to-many relationships (M:N)
– An employee might learn many job skills, and each job skill might
be learned by many employees.
EMPLOYEE (M) learns SKILL (N)
One-to-one relationships (1:1)
– Each store is managed by a single employee and each store
manager (employee) only manages a single store.
EMPLOYEE (1) manages STORE (1)
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Relationship Depiction: The ERD
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Relationship Depiction: The Crow’s Foot
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E-R Data Models
– Advantages
Exceptional conceptual simplicity
Visual representation
Effective communication tool
Integrated with relational database model
– Disadvantages
Limited constraint representation
Limited relationship representation
No data manipulation language
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Object-Oriented (OO) Model
Semantic data model (SDM) developed by Hammer
and McLeod in 1981
Data and their relationships contained in a single
structure known as an object
Basis of object oriented data model (OODM)
OODM becomes the basis for the object oriented
database management system (OODBMS)
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Object Oriented Data Model - Basic Structure
OODM
Objects or abstractions of real-world entities are
stored:
– Attributes describe properties
– Collection of similar objects is a class
Methods represent real world actions of classes
Classes are organized in a class hierarchy
– Inheritance is ability of object to inherit attributes and
methods of classes above it
UML based on OO concepts that describe
diagrams and symbols
– Used to graphically model a system
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Object Oriented Model
Advantages
– Adds semantic content
– Visual presentation includes semantic content
– Database integrity
– Both structural and data independence
Disadvantages
– Slow pace of OODM standards development
– Complex navigational data access
– Steep learning curve
– High system overhead slows transactions
– Lack of market penetration
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The Development of Data Models
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Data Models: Summary
Data Models and their Tasks:
Conceptual models (E-R Model): better suited for high-
level data modeling
Implementation models (Network, & Hierarchical Models):
better for managing stored data for implementation
purposes
Relational, & OODM: can be used as both conceptual &
implementation models
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