UNIT - I

Basic concepts
 Topics

 Introduction
 Internet Model
 Signals
 Transmission Media

SDM/CA,SoC 2
 Introduction
 Data Communication
 Components
 Data Representation
 Direction of Data flow
 Network Criteria
 Topologies
 Categories of networks
 Protocols
 Standards and Standards Organizations.
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 Data Communication
 Data-In computing, data is information that has been translated
into a form that is more convenient to move or process
 Data communication is the transfer of information from source
to destination
 Data communication system - A system or facility capable of
providing information transfer between equipments. System
usually consists of a collection of individual communication
networks, transmission systems and relay stations
 Computer Network is a collection of computers connected to
each other. The network allows computers to communicate with
each other and share resources and information

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 Components of Data
Communication Systems
 Message / data –The information / data to be
transferred (text, image, audio).
 Sender – The device that sends the message (mobile,
computer).
 Receiver – The device that receives the message
(printer).
 Medium-The path / link that carries the data (coaxial
cable, twisted pair cable).
 Protocol – Define the syntax, semantics and time for
communication.

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 Characteristics of Data
Communication Systems

 Delivery - The data sent by the source should

reach the destination.
 Timeliness - The data should be delivered on
time. In many cases the delay may lead to
damage or the data may be of no use.
 Accuracy - The data is reaching the
destination without damage (in signals).

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 Advantages of networks

 Sharing of resources
 High computational capability with less cost.
 Increased reliability –The n/w services are available when it is
required.
 Security –The backups can be stored at geographically distant
location so that loss of data is avoided on disasters.
 The workplace need not be confined to a site.
 Scalability – The resources can be scaled up with ease when
required,…

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 Data Representation / format-Text
 Text –Alphabetic characters, numbers, special characters, symbols
 The textual characters are coded.
 ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange
 By ANSI –American National Standard Institute
 7-bit code
 EASCII-Extended ASCII
 ASCII extensions have so many variants
 Various proprietary extensions appeared on non-EBCDIC
mainframe and mini-computers, especially in universities
 Charlie's Extended ASCII
 IBM

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 Data Representation / format-Text

 Unicode
 By Unicode Consortium
 Provides a unique number for every character, no matter
• what the platform
• what the program
• what the language
 Designed to support the worldwide interchange, processing,
and display of the written texts of the diverse languages and
technical disciplines of the modern world.

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 Data Representation / format-Text
 Encoding forms: UTF-8, UTF-16, and UTF-32.
These use 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit code units,
respectively.
 UTF-8 – Uniform Transformation Format
• One to four octets(8 bit) of code
• UTF-8 encodes each character (code point) in one to four octets (8-
bit bytes), with the 1-byte encoding used for the 128 US-ASCII
characters.
 UTF-16
• One or more 16 bits
• The encoding form maps each character to a sequence of 16-bit
words.

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 Data Representation / format- Images

 Image file formats are

 standardized means of organizing and storing
images.
 also called raster graphics or bitmap files
 Represented as pixels and their intensity
values.

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 Data Representation / format- Images

 Various formats are available

 TIFF (Tagged Image File Format)
 JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
 GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) is limited to an 8-bit
palette, or 256 colors
 PNG (Portable Network Graphics) file format was created
as the free, open-source successor to the GIF
 BMP file format (Windows bitmap)
 CGM (Computer Graphics Metafile) is a file format for 2D
vector graphics, raster graphics, and text

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 Data Representation / format-Audio
 An audio file format is a container format for storing
audio data digitally
 There are three major groups of audio file formats:
 Uncompressed audio formats, such as
• WAV( Waveform)
• AIFF (Audio Interchange File Format)
• AU (audio file format) introduced by Sun Microsystems
 formats with lossless compression, such as
• FLAC( Free Lossless Audio Codec)
• Monkey's Audio (filename extension APE),
• WavPack (filename extension WV)
• lossless Windows Media Audio (WMA)
 formats with lossy compression, such as
• MP3, Moving Picture Experts Group Layer-3 Audio
• ATRAC, Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding
• WMA, Windows Media Audio
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 Data Representation /
format- Video
 The term video commonly refers to several storage
formats for moving eye pictures
 Stores pictures and voice
 Number of formats are available:
 Flash video files use the extension .flv
 MPEG video is a series of video standards defined by the
Moving Picture Experts Group
 Blu-Ray Disc (Sony). The name refers to the blue laser
used
 WMV (Windows Media Video)

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 N/W Criteria-Performance
 Performance of the network
 How the network services are provided.
 Performance may mean – Bandwidth, speed,
secure, resource utilization.
 Two major measures for measuring performance
are
• Transit time – The time taken by the message to reach
the destination.
• Response Time – The lapsed time between the request
and response.

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 N/W Criteria-Reliability
 Reliability – The probability with which a
system behaves as it is expected, under the
specified environment, for the specified period
of time.
 Reliability requires availability
 Measured using
 Frequency of failure
 Ability to recover from errors
 Error tolerance
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 N/W Criteria-Security

 The ability to withstand attacks (both

accidental and intentional) on any asset
(data,documents, processing elements,…)
 No direct measure

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 Modes of Transmission
 Transmission on a communications channel
between two machines is characterised by:
 the direction of the exchanges
 the number of bits sent simultaneously
 synchronisation between the transmitter and receiver
 There are 3 different transmission modes
according to the direction of the exchanges:
 Simplex
 Half- Duplex
 Full-Duplex

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 Simplex mode

 One way transmission / Communication

 Only the sender can transmit data.

 Eg. Printer, mouse, keyboard.
S R

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 Half- Duplex
 Two way alternative.
 Both the sender and receiver can send the data but not
simultaneously
 The sender sends the data .
 Later it can receive data.
 Eg. Walkie – Talkie

S R

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 Full Duplex
 Two way simultaneous communication
 The sender and receiver can transmit simultaneously.
 Ex:Telephone, mobile connections
 Can be implemented using single full duplex or two half-duplex lines

S R

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Types of Connections-
Point-to-Point

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Types of Connections-
Multipoint

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 Topology
 The way the devices are connected to each other either
physically or logically.
 Physical topology-refers to the configuration of
cables, computers, and other peripherals, that is the
physical connections between them
 Logical topology(Signal Topology)-the way in which
a network transmits information from one node to the
next node or the configuration from the point of view
of the communication flow.

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 Common Topologies

 Mesh topology
 Bus topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Hybrid topology

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 Mesh Topology
 Every device is directly connected to every
other device.
 There is a point - to- point link between each
pair of devices.
 If there are ‘n’ devices
the number of links
required are n(n-1)/2

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 Mesh Topology-Advantages

 The n/w is more reliable because, even if a

node fails the n/w continues to function.
 Performance is high, because the links are not
shared.
 More secure, because the link is shared only
between the sender and receiver.
 Installation and configuring is easier.

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 Mesh Topology-
Disadvantages

 Cost is higher due to too much of cabling.

 In larger n/w adding a new node is difficult.

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 Bus Topology
 All the devices are connected to the backbone cable /
link using tap / droplines
 Type of connection is multipoint.
 Backbone cable is terminated with terminators
 Though the link is shared by number of devices only
one device has to transmit at the given instant of
time.
 The signals travel in both the direction. Backbone
cable
Terminator

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 Bus Topology- Advantages
 The cost is less,because less cabling is
required.
 It is easy to install and configure.
 Adding new devices is easy.
 Even if a node fails,the n/w continues to
function

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 Bus Topology-Disadvantages

 It is not secure as the link is shared.

 Performance may be poor, as traffic is high.
 When the backbone cable fails the n/w is
down.
 Fault isolation is difficult.
 Scaling is restricted by the distance the cable
can run and the number of taps per second unit
distance

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 Star Topology
 Every device is connected to the Central
Switching Element through a dedicated link.
 The devices will send the data to the Central
Switching Element forwards the data to the
destination device.

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 Star Topology
 Advantages
 Less cost because comparatively less cabling.
 Due to dedicated link,
 data is secured(private).
 traffic is less, so performance is high.
 Adding new device is easier.
 Installation and configuring is easier.
 Fault isolation is easier.
 n/w continues to function even if a node fails
 Disadvantages
 The n/w fails when the CSE fails.

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 Ring Topology
 Every device is connected to its adjacent
(neighboring) nodes through dedicated link.
 The devices are connected to the link using
repeaters.
 The traffic is unidirectional.
 Only one station/node can transmit at the given
instant of time

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 Ring Topology- Advantages

 Cost is less due to less cabling.

 Installing and configuring is easier.
 If a node fails n/w continues to function. (By
default they are having closing switches).
 Adding new stations are easier

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 Hybrid Topology -Tree
 Combination of two topologies (Tree and Star-
ring topologies).
 It is a combination of star and bus topology.
 The smaller n/w’s are connected using bus
topology so that a tree can be formed.
 The root of the tree forwards the traffic in the
respective branches

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Hybrid Topology -Tree

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 Hybrid Topology -Tree
 Advantages
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software
venders.
 Disadvantages
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes
down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other
topologies.

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 Categories of Networks

 Based on their scale or their scope,

networks can be classified as
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

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 Local Area Network- LAN
 Laid within across a small geographic area

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 Local Area Network- LAN
 private network (devices and links) owned by an
organization.
 The objective of the LAN’s is to provide connectivity
and to enlarge the information.
 Topology is regular/ well defined
 Governed by IEEE 802 standards for LAN
 Links are less error prone (error rate=1: 108 bits)
 Links provide high-speed transmission
 Speed ranges from 10Mbps to several gigabytes.
 E.g., Ethernet, Token rings, Apple-talk

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 Metropolitan Area Network- MAN
 The interconnection of networks in a city into a single
larger network
 Spans a city or town.
 The links may be private / public.
 The purpose of MAN is exchange the information
among various branches in a town / city.
 Ex: Telephone lines, Cable TVs.
 The links may be dialup or leased lines.
 Topology is irregular.
 Usually broadcasting networks.
 Governed by IEEE 802.6 standard.

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Metropolitan Area Network- MAN

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 Wide Area Network- WAN
 It can span wider geographic area. It may be a state,
country, continent or across the globe.
 May be private / public.
 The links, switches and routers are usually public.
 Example for pubic WAN is Internet.
 Example for private WAN is called Intranet.
 Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks
may be used to connect this type of network
 Ex., IBM SNA, X.25 networks, Internet

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Wide Area Network- WAN

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 Origin Of Internet
 1965, Lawrence Roberts of MIT connected a Massachusetts
computer with a California computer over dial-up telephone
lines.
 This lead to WAN and proved circuit switching was inadequate.
 In late 1966 Roberts went to DARPA, developed the computer
network concept and published, his plan for the "ARPANET"
in 1967.
 At the same conference, there was papers from
 UK by Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury of NPL on a packet
network concept
 The RAND group on packet switching networks for secure voice in the
military in 1964.
 The work at MIT (1961-1967), at RAND (1962-1965), and at
NPL (1964-1967) had proceeded in parallel without knowing
about the other work.
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 Origin Of Internet
 The word "packet" was adopted from the work at NPL
 In August 1968, Robertsand the ARPA had refined the
structure and specifications for the ARPANET, an RFQ
was released for the development of the packet
switches called IMP's
 The network topology and economics were designed
and optimized by Roberts with Howard Frank at
Network Analysis Corporation
 Network measurement system was prepared by
Kleinrock's team at UCLA.
 NPL proposed line speed to be used in the ARPANET
design was upgraded from 2.4 kbps to 50 kbps.
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 Origin Of Internet
 The dream was realized in 1969
 ARPANET connected four major computers at
universities in the southwestern US
 Computers were added quickly to the ARPANET
 In December 1970 NWG under S. Crocker finished
the initial ARPANET Host-to-Host protocol-Network
Control Protocol (NCP).
 1971-1972 the ARPANET sites completed
implementing NCP
 During its early stage, it was primarily used by
computer experts, engineers, scientists and librarians.

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 Origin Of Internet
 In October 1972, ARPANET was demonstrated at the
International Computer Communication Conference
(ICCC) to the public.
 In 1972 the initial application, e-mail, was introduced,
by Ray Tomlinson
 In March, Ray wrote the basic e-mail message send
and read software
 In July, Roberts expanded it, by writing the first email
utility program to list, selectively read, file, forward,
and respond to messages.
 It was he who used the symbol @ on his teletype to
link the username and address.
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 Origin Of Internet
 1973- RFC for the ftp protocol was published
 In 1970s, TCP/IP architecture first proposed by Bob
Kahn at BBN (Bolt Beranek and Newman)
 Later adopted by the Defense Department in 1980
and universally, in 1983.
 In 1978, UUCP was invented at Bell Labs, which
formed the basis of Usenet.
 This was used by newsgroups for discussion on
topics

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 Origin Of Internet
 After this, BITNET (Because It's Time Network)
arrived, which, with the internet allowed exchange of
e-mail, e-mail discussion lists.
 In 1986, the National Science Foundation funded
NSFNet, as a cross country 56 Kbps backbone for the
Internet
 As the commands for e-mail, FTP and telnet were
standardized, non-technical people started using it

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 Origin Of Internet
 Internet index was created in 1989
 1991, the WWW was introduced
 The system included inserting links in text,
 In 1993, the graphical browser ‘Mosaic’ by
Marc Andreessen and his team, at the National
Center for Supercomputing Applications
(NCSA) was introduced
  Netscape Corp. produced the graphical type
of browser and server.
 Microsoft developed Internet Explorer.
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 Origin Of Internet
 Since Internet was initially funded by the government, its usage
was limited to research, education & government application
 1990s, independent commercial networks began to grow.
 It became easy to route traffic across the country, without
passing through government funded NSFNet Internet backbone.
 In 1992, it offered an email connection and full Internet service.
 In 1995, the limitations on commercial use disappeared, as
National Science Foundation ended its sponsorship of the
Internet backbone.
 After this, the commercial market saw a major shift, with Bill
Gates Microsoft's full scale entry into the browser, server, and
Internet Service Provider.

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 The Internet Today
 The Internet today is not a simple hierarchical
structure.
 It is made up of many WAN and LAN joined
by connecting devices and switching stations.
 Internet is continually changing-
 new networks are being added
 existing networks are adding addresses
 networks are being removed.

SDM/CA,SoC 54
 The Internet Today
 Today most end users who want Internet connection
use the services of Internet service providers (lSPs).
 There are
 international service providers
 national service providers
 regional service providers
 and local service providers
 The Internet today is run by private companies, not
the government.

SDM/CA,SoC 55
The Internet Today

SDM/CA,SoC 56
 International Internet Service
Providers
 Also called Internet access provider or IAP
 At the top of the hierarchy
 Connect nations together
 The ISP connects to its customers using a data
transmission technology appropriate for delivering
Internet Protocol data grams
 dial-up
 DSL
 cable modem
 dedicated high-speed interconnects

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 National Internet Service
Providers
 Backbone networks are created and maintained by
specialized companies
 Backbone networks are connected by complex
switching stations (normally run by a third party)
called network access points (NAPs).
 Private switching stations, called peering points, also
connect some national ISP networks to one another
 These normally operate at a high data rate

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 Regional Internet Service
Providers

 Smaller ISPs that are connected to one or more

national ISPs
 They are at the third level of the hierarchy with
a smaller data rate.

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 Local Internet Service
Providers
 Provide direct service to the end users
 The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs or
directly to national ISPs
 Most end users are connected to the local ISPs
 A local ISP can be a company that just provides
Internet services, a corporation with a network that
supplies services to its own employees, or a nonprofit
organization, such as a college or a university that
runs its own network.

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 Internet Service Providers-
India
 The federal government of India ended the monopoly of
VSNL over Internet services from October 7, 1998
 Today, there are more than 200 private sector ISPs
 The Internet Service Providers Association of India
(ISPAI)
 was set up in 1998
 with a mission to 'Promote Internet for the benefit of all'.
 is the collective voice of the ISP fraternity and by extension the
entire Internet community.
 works closely with the Government, the Regulator and major
Industry Chambers

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 Internet Service Providers-
India
 Satyam Infoway Ltd. is the first private sector ISP in
India
 Tata Indicom Total Internet
 Experience reliable, economical, convenient dialup internet
connection from Tata Indicom Total Internet, the people
who introduced Internet in India.
 Sancharnet
 A country wide Internet Access Network of Bharat Sanchar
Nigam Limited, India.
 Offers Dedicated and Dialup (PSTN & ISDN) Internet
Access Services across all the major cities in India

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 PROTOCOLS

 Communication to occur entities must be capable of

understanding the information
 To understand the message they must know a common
language
 A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
Communications.
 A protocol defines
 what is communicated
 how it is communicated
 when it is communicated

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 Key Elements of a Protocol
 Syntax:
 Refers to the structure or format of the data
 For example, a protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data
to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the
address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.
 Semantics:
 Refers to the meaning of each section of bits
 It specifies how a particular pattern is to be interpreted, and
what action is to be taken based on that interpretation?
 For example, does an address identify the source or the final
destination of the message?
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 Key Elements of a Protocol
 Timing:
 Refers to two characteristics:
• when data should be sent
• how fast they can be sent
 For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps
but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps,
the transmission will overload the receiver and
some data will be lost.

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 Standards
 Why standards?
 to achieve a level of safety, quality, and consistency in the
products and processes that affect our lives.
 Definition: “A prescribed set of rules, conditions, or
requirements concerning definitions of terms;
classification of components; specification of
materials, performance, or operations; delineation of
procedures; or measurement of quantity and quality in
describing materials, products, systems, services, or
practices.”

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 Standards
 Standards in networking are essential in creating and
maintaining an open and competitive market for
equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national
and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes
 Data communication standards fall into two categories
 de facto
 de jure

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 De facto Standard
 De facto is a Latin phrase meaning “concerning the
fact” or “in practice”or “by fact”
 Standards that have not been approved by an
organized body but have been adopted as standards
through widespread use by public acceptance, market
forces are de facto standards.
 De facto standards are often established originally, by
manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of
a new product or technology

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 De facto Standard-Examples
 Ethernet is fast becoming the De Facto Networking
Standard
 A number of protocols arose from widespread
commercial and educational use.
 SNMP is the Internet community's de facto standard
management protocol.
 WAP has quickly become the de facto standard for
accessing the Internet through wireless devices

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 De jure Standard
 Means "by law" or "by regulation"
 Standards that have been legislated by an
officially recognized body or by standard
bodies, professional organizations, industry
groups, a government body, or other groups are
de jure standards
 An example of a de jure set of standards-
TCP/IP protocol

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 Standards Organizations

 Standards are developed through the

cooperation of
 Standards creation committees
 Forums
 Government regulatory agencies

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 Standards Creation
Committees
 Standards organization/ Standards body, standards
development organization/ SDO
 An entity whose primary activities are
 Developing
 Coordinating
 Revising,
 Amending
 Reissuing
 Interpreting
 Maintaining
standards that address the interests of a wide base of users
outside the standards development organization.
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 Standards Creation
Committees-Examples
 International Organization for Standardization
(ISO):
 A multinational body whose membership is drawn mainly from
the standards creation committees of various governments
throughout the world
 Is active in developing cooperation in the realms of scientific,
technological, and economic activity.
 International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T):
 Devoted to the research and establishment of standards for
telecommunications in general and for phone and data systems
in particular
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 Standards Creation
Committees-Examples
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI):
 A completely private, nonprofit corporation
 All ANSI activities are undertaken with the welfare of the
United States and its citizens occupying primary importance.
  Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE):
 The largest professional engineering society in the world
 It aims to advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the
fields of electrical engineering, electronics, and radio as well as
in all related branches of engineering
 Oversees the development and adoption of international
standards for computing and communications.
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 Standards Creation
Committees-Examples
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
 Aligned with ANSI, EIA is a nonprofit organization
 Devoted to the promotion of electronics manufacturing
concerns
 Activities include public awareness education and lobbying
efforts in addition to standards development.
 Defining physical connection interfaces and electronic
signaling specifications for data communication.

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 Standards Creation
Committees-Examples
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 a large, open international community of network
designers, operators, vendors, and researchers
concerned with the evolution of the Internet
architecture and the smooth operation of the
Internet
 It is open to any interested individual.
 The IETF's technical work is performed by
working groups, organised into major topic areas.

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 Forums
 Internet forums are also referred to as web
forums, message boards, discussion boards,
discussion forums, discussion groups, bulletin
boards or simply forums
 People participating in an Internet forum can
build bonds with each other and interest groups
will easily form around a topic's discussion,
subjects dealt within or around
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 Forums
 Forums are governed by a set of individuals,
commonly referred to as administrators, which
are responsible for the forums' conception,
technical maintenance and policies.
 Most forums have a list of rules detailing the
wishes, aim and guidelines of the forums
creator sections in the forum.

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 Forums
 The forums work with universities and users to test,
evaluate, and standardize new technologies.
 By concentrating their efforts on a particular
technology, the forums are able to speed acceptance
and use of those technologies in the
telecommunications community.
 The forums present their conclusions to the standards
bodies.

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 Forums-Examples
 Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG)
 United Nations multistakeholder Working group set up
after the 2003 World Summit on the Information Society
(WSIS) first phase Summit in Geneva to agree on the future
of Internet governance.
 IPv6 Working Group
 The IPv6 working group is an IETF working group
chartered to develop the next generation of the Internet
Protocol. The working group was previously named the IP
Next Generation Working Group (IPNGWG).

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 Forums-Examples

 IETF Working Groups

 Email Address Internationalization (eai)
 DNS Extensions (dnsext)

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 Regulatory Agencies
 All communications technology is subject to
regulation by government agencies
 The purpose of these agencies is to protect the public
interest by regulating radio, television, and wire/cable
communications.
 The FCC (Federal Communications
Commission) has authority over interstate and
international commerce as it relates to
communications.

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