POWER FACTOR
FUNDAMENTALS
Salman Tariq
Background
Power factor is a measurement of how efficiently a facility uses electrical
energy. A high power factor means that electrical capacity is being
utilized effectively, while a low power factor indicates poor utilization of
electric power.
However, this is not to be confused with energy efficiency or
conservation which applies only to energy. Improving the efficiency of
electrical equipment reduces energy consumption, but does not
necessarily improve the power factor.
Power factor involves the relationship between these two types of power.
Active Power is measured in kilowatts (kW) and Reactive Power is
measured in kilovolt-amperes-reactive (kVAr).
Active power and reactive power together make up Apparent Power,
which is measured in kilovolt-amperes (kVA). This relationship is often
illustrated using the familiar "power triangle".
The Nature of Reactive Energy
All inductive (i.e. electromagnetic) machines and devices that operate on
AC systems convert electrical energy from the power system generators
into mechanical work and heat. This energy is measured by kWh meters,
and is referred to as “active” or “wattful” energy.
In order to perform this conversion, magnetic fields have to be
established in the machines, and these fields are associated with another
form of energy to be supplied from the power system, known as
“reactive” or “wattless” energy.
The reason for this is that inductive circuit cyclically absorbs energy from
the system (during the build-up of the magnetic fields) and re-injects
that energy into the system (during the collapse of the magnetic fields)
twice in every power-frequency cycle.
An exactly similar phenomenon occurs with shunt capacitive elements in a
power system, such as cable capacitance or banks of power capacitors,
etc. In this case, energy is stored electrostatically. The cyclic charging
and discharging of capacitive circuit reacts on the generators of the
system in the same manner as that described above for inductive circuit,
but the current flow to and from capacitive circuit in exact phase
opposition to that of the inductive circuit. This feature is the basis on
which power factor correction schemes depend.
It should be noted that while this “wattless” current (more accurately,
the “wattless” component of a load current) does not draw power from
the system, it does cause power losses in transmission and distribution
systems by heating the conductors.
In practical power systems, “wattless” components of load currents are
invariably inductive, while the impedances of transmission and
distribution systems are predominantly inductively reactive. The
combination of inductive current passing through an inductive reactance
produces the worst possible conditions of voltage drop (i.e. in direct
phase opposition to the system voltage).
For these reasons (transmission power losses and voltage drop), the
power-supply authorities reduce the amount of “wattless” (inductive)
current as much as possible. “Wattless” (capacitive) currents have the
reverse effect on voltage levels and produce voltage-rises in power
systems.
Equipment and Appliances Requiring Reactive Energy
All AC equipments and appliances that include electromagnetic devices, or depend
on magnetically-coupled windings, require some degree of reactive current to create
magnetic flux.
The most common items in this class are transformers and reactors, motors and
discharge lamps (with magnetic ballasts)
REACTIVE POWER
Reactive Power is a phenomenon of AC Power and doesn’t
do real work.
“Power” refers to energy quantities flowing in the power
system.
Instantaneously, the product of voltage & current
Normally, “Power” refers to real power
Real Power only when voltage & current are in phase
Measured in Watts (joule per sec) or Kilowatts (kW)
Reactive Power (along with Real Power) when voltage &
current are not in phase
Measured in VAR (volt-ampere-reactive) or KiloVars (kVars)
Power Factor
The numerical value by which apparent power must be multiplied to
determine active or true power, this numerical value is called POWER
FACTOR.
OR
THE RATIO OF ACTIVE TO APPARENT POWER
OR
THE RATIO OF POWER PRODUCING CURRENT TO THE TOTAL
CURRENT
CAUSES OF LOW POWER FACTOR
The usual cause of low power factor is due to inductive loads. As current in
inductive loads lags behind the voltage. The power factor is therefore lagging.
The important inductive loads responsible for low power factor are:
Induction motors
Transformers
Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps, industrial furnaces, welding
equipment operate at lagging power factors
EFFECT OF LOW POWER FACTOR
1. It causes overloading of conductors, transformers, other equipments.
2. Reduced efficiency of alternators, prime movers.
3. Increased I2R losses in transmission lines.
4. Reduced illumination of incandescent lamps.
An off-line switch-mode power supply can draw approximately 950
Watts from a typical 110VAC wall socket protected by a 15A circuit
breaker before exceeding the UL mandated limit. A simple load like a
toaster can draw almost 1400 Watts. The difference between the two is
due to the low power factor (PF) of the switch-mode power supply. If
we correct the PF the switch-mode supply can draw about as much
power as the toaster can, allowing it to power a larger load from the
same 110VAC 15A wall socket.
What is Power Factor Correction (PFC)?
Power factor (PF) is technically the ratio of real power consumed to apparent
power (volts RMS x amps RMS), and is expressed as a decimal fraction
between 0 and 1. PF is traditionally known as the phase difference between
sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms.
When the AC load is partly capacitive or inductive, the current waveform is out
of phase with the voltage (as Figure 1b). This requires additional AC current to
be generated which isn't consumed by the load, creating I2R losses in power
cables.
A simple resistor has the highest PF - 1. An AC voltage across the resistor
causes an AC current which is identical to and in phase with the voltage
waveform (see figure 1a).
Figure 1a. Voltage and
Current waveforms are
sinusoidal and in phase;
PF=1.
An electric motor is inductive, especially when it is starting. The current waveform
lags behind the voltage waveform, dropping the PF to well below 1. This is why
many motors have 'starting' capacitors fitted to counteract the inductance, and
therefore correct the PF during motor startup.
Figure 1b. Voltage and
current waveforms are
sinusoidal but out of
phase; PF <1.
What we will learn:
Most Industrial loads require both Real power and
Reactive power to produce useful work
You pay for BOTH types of power
Capacitors can supply the REACTIVE power thus
the utility doesn’t need to
Capacitors save you money!
WHY POWER FACTOR CORRECTION IS REQUIRED?
Power Factor Correction Saves Money!
» Reduces Power Bills
» Reduces I2R losses in conductors
» Reduces loading on transformers
» Improves voltage drop
Most plant loads are Inductive and require a magnetic field to
operate:
– Motors
– Transformers
– Florescent lighting
» The magnetic field is necessary, but produces no useful work
» The utility must supply the power to produce the magnetic field
and the power to produce the useful work: You pay for all of it!
» These two types of currents are the ACTIVE and REACTIVE
components
The Power Triangle:
Similarly, motors require REACTIVE power to set up the
magnetic field while the ACTIVE power produces the useful
work (shaft horsepower). Total Power is the vector sum of the
two & represents what you pay for:
The Power Triangle:
Power Factor is the ratio of Active Power to Total Power:
Power Factor is a measure of efficiency (Output/Input)
Why do we Install Capacitors?
Capacitors supply, for free, the reactive energy required by
inductive loads.
» You only have to pay for the capacitor !
» Since the utility doesn’t supply it (kVAR), you don’t pay for it!
Other Benefits:
Released system capacity:
» The effect of PF on current drawn is shown below:
Decreasing size of conductors required to carry the same
100kW load at P.F.
ranging from 70% to 100%
Active Power
Reactive Power
Available Active Power
Other Benefits:
Reduced Power Losses:
» As current flows through conductors, the conductors heat.
This heating is power loss
» Power loss is proportional to current squared (PLoss=I2R)
» Current is proportional to P.F
» Conductor loss can account for as much as 2-5% of total load
Capacitors can reduce losses by 1-2% of the total load
Other Benefits:
Voltage Improvement:
» When capacitors are added, voltage will increase.
» Typically only a few percent – Not a significant economic or
system benefit.
Severe over-correction (P.F.>1) will cause a voltage rise
that can damage insulation & equipment; or result in utility
surcharges!
– Usually a result of large fixed capacitors at mains
Summary of Benefits:
Reduced Power Costs:
» Since Capacitors supply reactive power, you don’t pay the
utility for it
» You can calculate the savings
Off-load transformers
» Defer buying a larger transformer when adding loads
Reduce voltage drop at loads
» Only if capacitors are applied at loads
» (minimal benefit at best)
What we learned..
Most Industrial loads (i.e. motors) are Inductive and draw
REACTIVE power
The Utility supplies this energy therefore you pay for it
Power Factor Capacitors supply REACTIVE energy thus the
utility doesn’t need to
Power Factor Capacitors save money
There are other benefits to correcting power factor,
» Reduced heating in cables
» Reduced heating in transformer (s)
» Frees up system capacity
