Data Mining
Dr. Shahid Mahmood Awan
http://turing.cs.pub.ro/mas_11
curs.cs.pub.ro
shahid.awan@umt.edu.pk
University of Management and Technology
Fall 2018
Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data
Data Objects and Attribute Types
Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data
Data Visualization
Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity
Summary
2
2.2 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data
Motivation
To better understand the data: central tendency,
variation and spread
Data dispersion characteristics
median, max, min, quantiles, outliers, variance, etc.
3
4
Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data
Numerical dimensions
correspond to sorted intervals
Data dispersion: analyzed with multiple granularities
of precision
Boxplot or quantile analysis on sorted intervals
Dispersion analysis on computed measures
Folding measures into numerical dimensions
Boxplot or quantile analysis on the transformed cube
5
Measuring the Central Tendency
Mean (algebraic measure) (sample vs. population): 1 n
x xi
n i 1
Note: n is sample size and N is population size.
Weighted arithmetic mean:
Trimmed mean: chopping extreme values x
N
w x i i
x i 1
n
w
i 1
i
6
Activity
Calculate Mean,
Data: 3, 1, 5
Data: Class CGPA
Suppose we have the following values for
salary (in thousands of dollars), shown in
increasing order: 30, 36, 47, 50, 52, 52, 56,
60, 63, 70, 70, 110.
Sample Grade Data
A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- F SA
> 85 80-84 75-79 70-74 63-69 60-62 55-59 50-54 < 50 …..
6 10 14 18 15 12 8 6 2 1
20 B
18
16
14 B+ B- C+
12 A-
10
8
A
6
4
2
0
8
Measuring the Central Tendency…
Mode
Value that occurs most frequently in the data
1,2,3,3,3,4,4,5 (mode = 3)
Unimodal, bimodal, trimodal
Empirical formula:
Fm Fm 1
mod e L ( ) width Mode
( Fm Fm 1 ) ( Fm Fm 1 ) interval
mean mode 3 (mean median)
9
Measuring the Central Tendency…
Median:
Middle value if odd number of values, or average of the
middle two values otherwise
Estimated by interpolation (for grouped data):
n / 2 ( freq ) l
median L1 ( ) width Median
freq median interval
10
Measuring the Central Tendency…
Midrange
Average of max and min values
(Max + Min)/2
Activity
Calculate Median, Mode, Midrange
Data: 3, 1, 5
Data: Class CGPA
Suppose we have the following values for
salary (in thousands of dollars), shown in
increasing order: 30, 36, 47, 50, 52, 52, 56,
60, 63, 70, 70, 110.
Class Activity
A student has gotten the following grades on his
tests: 87, 95, 76, and 88.
He wants an 85 or better overall. What is the
minimum grade he must get on the last test in
order to achieve that average?
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A student has gotten the following grades on his
tests: 87, 95, 76, and 88.
He wants an 85 or better overall. What is the
minimum grade he must get on the last test in
order to achieve that average?
The unknown score is "x". Then the desired average is:
(87 + 95 + 76 + 88 + x) ÷ 5 = 85
Multiplying through by 5 and simplifying, I get:
87 + 95 + 76 + 88 + x = 425
346 + x = 425
x = 79
He needs to get at least a 79 on the last test.
15
Symmetric vs. Skewed Data
Median, mean and mode of symmetric
symmetric, positively and
negatively skewed data
positively skewed negatively skewed
November 13, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 17
Measuring the Dispersion of Data
Quartiles, outliers and boxplots
Quartiles: Q1 (25th percentile), Q3 (75th percentile)
Inter-quartile range: IQR = Q3 – Q1
Five number summary: min, Q1, median, Q3, max
Boxplot: ends of the box are the quartiles; median is marked; add whiskers,
and plot outliers individually
Outlier: usually, a value higher/lower than 1.5 x IQR
at least 1.5 x IQR above the third quartile or below the first quartile.
18
Measuring the Dispersion of Data
Variance and standard deviation (sample: s, population: σ)
Variance: (algebraic, scalable computation)
The average of the squared differences from the Mean.
Standard deviation s (or σ) is the square root of variance s2 (or σ2)
The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spread out numbers are.
1 n 1 n 2 1 n 2 1 n
1 n
s
2
n 1 i 1
( xi x )
2
[ xi ( xi ) ]
n 1 i 1 n i 1
2
N
i 1
( xi
2
)
N
x
i 1
i
2
2
19
Standard Deviation
http://standard-deviation.appspot.com/
20
Python Code Examples
Describing a numeric Series. Describing a categorical Series.
s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])
s.describe() s = pd.Series(['a', 'a', 'b', 'c'])
count 3.0 s.describe()
mean 2.0 count 4
std 1.0 unique 3
min 1.0 top a
25% 1.5 freq 2
50% 2.0 dtype: object
75% 2.5
max 3.0
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Standard Deviation
A C E
Test Score (X) X–Mean (d) d2
100 50
110 40
120 30
130 20
140 10
150 0
160 -10
170 -20
180 -30
190 -40
200 -50
SUM
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Standard Deviation
A B C D E
Test Score Frequency X–Mean (d) fd fd2
(X) (f)
100 8 50 400 20,000
110 13 40 520 20,800
120 17 30 510 15,300
130 20 20 400 8,000
140 21 10 210 2,100
150 22 0 0 0
160 21 -10 -210 2,100
170 20 -20 -400 8,000
180 17 -30 -510 15,300
190 13 -40 -520 20,800
200 8 -50 -400 20,000
SUM 180 132,400
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Example: Dispersion of Data
30, 36, 47, 50, 52, 52, 56, 60, 63, 70, 70, 110
Q1
Q2
Q3
IQR
Five Number Summary
Variance
SD
Boxplot Analysis
Five-number summary of a distribution
Minimum, Q1, Median, Q3, Maximum
Boxplot
Data is represented with a box
The ends of the box are at the first and third
quartiles, i.e., the height of the box is IQR
The median is marked by a line within the
box
Whiskers: two lines outside the box extended
to Minimum and Maximum
Outliers: points beyond a specified outlier
threshold, plotted individually
25
Visualization of Data Dispersion: 3-D Boxplots
November 13, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 27
Properties of Normal Distribution Curve
The normal (distribution) curve
From μ–σ to μ+σ: contains about 68% of the
measurements (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation)
From μ–2σ to μ+2σ: contains about 95% of it
From μ–3σ to μ+3σ: contains about 99.7% of it
28
Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical Descriptions
Boxplot: graphic display of five-number summary
Histogram: x-axis are values, y-axis repres. frequencies
Quantile plot: each value xi is paired with fi indicating
that approximately 100 fi % of data are xi
Quantile-quantile (q-q) plot: graphs the quantiles of
one univariant distribution against the corresponding
quantiles of another
Scatter plot: each pair of values is a pair of coordinates
and plotted as points in the plane
29
Histogram Analysis
Histogram: Graph display of
tabulated frequencies, shown as 40
bars 35
It shows what proportion of cases 30
fall into each of several categories
25
Differs from a bar chart in that it is
20
the area of the bar that denotes the
value, not the height as in bar 15
charts, a crucial distinction when the 10
categories are not of uniform width
5
The categories are usually specified
0
as non-overlapping intervals of 10000 30000 50000 70000 90000
some variable. The categories (bars)
must be adjacent
30
Histograms Often Tell More than Boxplots
The two histograms
shown in the left may
have the same boxplot
representation
The same values
for: min, Q1,
median, Q3, max
But they have rather
different data
distributions
31
Quantile Plot
Displays all of the data (allowing the user to assess both
the overall behavior and unusual occurrences)
Plots quantile information
For a data x data sorted in increasing order, f indicates
i i
that approximately 100 fi% of the data are below or
equal to the value xi
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 32
Quantile-Quantile (Q-Q) Plot
Graphs the quantiles of one univariate distribution against the
corresponding quantiles of another
View: Is there is a shift in going from one distribution to another?
Example shows unit price of items sold at Branch 1 vs. Branch 2 for
each quantile. Unit prices of items sold at Branch 1 tend to be lower
than those at Branch 2.
33
Scatter plot
Provides a first look at bivariate data to see clusters of
points, outliers, etc
Each pair of values is treated as a pair of coordinates and
plotted as points in the plane
34
Positively and Negatively Correlated Data
The left half fragment is positively
correlated
The right half is negative correlated
35
Uncorrelated Data
36
