GROUP - WYE DELTA

ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY: BASIC DEFINITIONS

ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY
CLASSIFICATION OF POWER QUALITY
TYPES OF DISTURBANCES
HARMONIC DISTORTION
 ELE 10 6 : DISTRIBUTIO N SYSTEM A ND
SUBSTATION DESIGN

•ELECTRIC P O W E R Q U A L I T Y

BASIC
DEFINITIONS
H A R M O N I C S - S I N U S O I D A L V O LTA G E S O R C U R R E N T S
H A V I N G F R E Q U E N C I E S T H AT ARE I NT EGER M U LT I P L E S O F
T H E F U N D A M E N TA L F R E Q U E N C Y AT W H I C H T H E S U P P LY
S Y S T E M IS D E S I G N E D TO O P E R AT E .
•TOTAL H A R M O N I C DISTORTION ( THD) - THE RATIO O F THE
R O OT- M E A N - S Q UA R E ( RMS) O F THE H A R M O N I C
C O N T E N T TO THE RMS VA L U E O F THE F U N D A M E N TA L
QUANTITY, EXPRESSED AS A PERCENT OF THE
F U N D A M E N TA L .

•DISPLACEMENT FACTOR ( DPF) - THE RATIO O F ACTIVE

P O W ER ( W A TTS) TO A P P A REN T P O W ER( V O LTA M P ERES).
•True Power Factor (TPF)
THE RATIO OF THE ACTIVE
P O W E R OF THE
F U N D A M E N TA L WAV E , IN
WATTS, TO THE A P PA R E N T
P O W E R OF THE
F U N D A M E N TA L WAV E , IN
RMS V O LTA M P ERES
( IN C LU D IN G TH E
HARMONICS
COMPONENTS).
 Triplen Harmonics
A F R E Q U E N C Y T E R M U S E D TO REFE R TO T H E O D D M U LT I P L E S
O F T H E THIRD H A R M O N I C , W H I C H D E S E R V E S P E C I A L
ATT E N T I O N B E C A U S E O F THEIR N AT U R A L T E N D E N C Y TO BE
ZERO SEQUENCE.

Why are Triplen harmonics important?

Not only the triplen harmonics affect plant reliability but also increases the
losses of electrical power since the losses in electrical power are
proportional to the square of the harmonic value. Hence it is important to
detect the presence of triplen harmonics for safe and reliable operation of
the plant.
TOTAL DEMAND DISTORTION (TDD)
T H E RATIO O F T H E R M S O F T H E H A R M O N I C C U R R E N T TO T H E
R M S V A L U E O F T H E R AT E D O R M A X I M U M D E M A N D
F U N D A M E N T A L C U R R E N T, E X P R E S S E D AS A P E R C E N T.

HARMONIC DISTORTION
P E R I O D I C D I S T O R T I O N O F T H E S I G N WAV E .
HARMONIC RESONANCE
A C O N D I T I O N IN W H I C H THE P O W E R S Y S T E M
IS R E S O N AT I N G N EAR O N E OF THE M A J O R
H A R M O N I C S BEI N G P R O D U C E D BY N O N LINEAR
E L E M E N T S IN THE SYSTEM, H E N C E I N C R E A S I N G THE
H A R M O N I C D I S TORTI ON .
 N O N - L I N E A R LOAD
AN ELECTRICAL LO A D WHICH DRAWS CURRENT
D I S C O N T I N U O U S LY OR W H O S E I M P E D A N C E S
VARIES T H R O U G H O U T T H E C Y C L E O F T H E I N P U T
A C V O LTA G E W A V E F O R M .

Examples:
N O TCH
A sw i t c h i n g ( or other) di st urban c e of the
normal p o w e r voltage waveform, lasting
Less than a half- cycl e , w h i c h is i n i t i a l l y
of o p p o s i t e p o l a r i ty than the wave for m.
I t include s c o m p l e t e loss of voltage for
up to 0 . 5 cycle.

NOTCHING
A periodic disturbance caused by normal operation
of a power electronic device , when i ts current i s
commutated from one phase to another.
 K-FACTOR

A FACTOR USED TO QUANTIFY THE

LOAD IMPACT OF ELECTRIC ARC
FURNACES ON THE POWER SYSTEM.
SAG SWELL
A DECREASE TO BETWEEN 0.1 AN INCREASE TO BETWEEN 1.1 AND
AND 0.9 PU IN RMS VOLTAGE AND 1.8PER U NIT (PU) IN RMS VOLTAGE OR
CURRENT AT THE POWER FREQUENCY
CURRENT AT THE POWER
FOR DURATIONS FROM 0.5 CYCLE TO 1
FREQUENCY FOR A DURATION OF MIN.
0.5 CYCLE TO 1 MIN.
 Overvoltage
A voltage that has a value at least 10% above the
nominal voltage for a period of time greater than 1
min.

Under voltage
A voltage that has a value at least 10% below the
nominal voltage for a period of time greater than l
min.
 CRESS FACTOR
A VALUE WHICH IS DISPLAYED ON ANY POWER
QUALITY MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
REPRESENTING THE RATIO OF THE CREST VALUE
OF THE MEASURED WAVEFORM TO THE RMS
VALUE OF THE WAVE- FORM. FOR EXAMPLE, THE
CRESS FACTOR OF A SINUSOIDAL WAVE IS 1.414.
 ISOLATED GROUND
IT ORIGINATES AT AN ISOLATED GROUND-TYPE
RECEPTACLE OR EQUIPMENT INPUT TERMINAL
BLOCK AND TERMINATES AT THE POINT WHERE THE
NEUTRAL AND GROUND ARE BONDED AT THE POWER
SOURCE. ITS CONDUCTOR IS INSULATED FROM THE
METALLIC RACEWAY AND ALL GROUND POINTS
THROUGHOUT ITS LENGTH.
 WAVEFORM DISTORTION
A STEADY-STATE DEVIATION FROM AN IDEAL SINE WAVE
OF POWER FREQUENCY PRINCIPALLY CHARACTERIZED BY
THE SPECIAL CONTENT OF THE DEVIATION

There are five primary types of waveform distortion:

• Harmonics
• DC offsets
• Inter – harmonics
• Notching
• Noise
 VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS
ARE DESCRIBED BY THE IEC AS CYCLICAL VARIATIONS OF THE
VOLTAGE ENVELOPE OR A SERIES OF RANDOM VOLTAGE CHANGES OF
UP TO ±10% OF THE NOMINAL. IN LOW-VOLTAGE NETWORKS
DOMESTIC APPLIANCES ARE SIGNIFICANT SOURCES, BUT EACH
APPLIANCE WILL AFFECT ONLY A LIMITED NUMBER OF CONSUMERS.

Voltage Magnification
The magnification of capacitor switching oscillatory transient voltage on the
primary side by capacitors on the secondary side of a transformer.
 VOLTAGE INTERRUPTION
DISAPPEARANCE OF THE SUPPLY VOLTAGE ON ONE OR
MORE PHASES. IT CAN BE MOMENTARY, TEMPORARY, OR
SUSTAINED.

Recovery Voltage
The voltage that occurs across the terminals of a pole of a circuit interrupting
device upon interruption of the current.
Oscillatory transient - An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non–power
frequency change in the steady-state condition of voltage, current, or both, that
includes both positive and negative polarity values.

Noise - An unwanted electrical signal with a less than 200 Hz superimposed

upon the system voltage or current in phase constructors, or found on neutral
conductors signal lines it is not a harmonic distortion or transient. it disturbs
microcomputers programmable controllers.
Voltage imbalance (or Unbalanced)- The maximum deviation from
the average of three phase voltage or currents, divided by the average
of the three -phase voltage current, express in percent.

Impulsive Transient- A sudden (non power) frequency change in the

steady-state condition of the voltage or current that is unidirectional
in polarity.
• Flicker- Impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation
induced by a light stimulus whose luminance or
spectral distribution fluctuates with time.
• Frequency deviation- An increase or decrease in the
power frequency. its duration varies from few cycles to
several hours.
• Momentary Interruption- The complete loss of voltage
(<0.1pu) on one or more phase conductors for a period
between 30 cycles and 3 sec.

• Sustained interruption- The complete loss of voltage

(<0.1 pu) on one or more phase conductors for a time
greater than 1 min.
• Phase shift- The displacement in time of one voltage
waveform relative to the other voltage waveform (s)
• Low side surges- The current surge that appears to be
injected into the transformer secondary terminals upon
a lighting strike to grounded conductors in the vicinity.
• Passive filter- A combination of inductors, capacitors, and
resistors designed to eliminate one or more harmonics. The
most common variety is simply an inductor in series with a
shunt capacitor, which short circuits the major distorting
harmonic component form the system.
• Active Filter- Any of a number of sophisticated power
electronic devices for eliminating Harmonic distortion.
Electric Power Quality
Electricity with a bad quality is dangerous
and uneconomical at both utility and
consumer end. There is a big need to focus
on the quality of power being supplied to
the loads.
Power Quality refers to the ability of electrical
equipment to consume the energy being supplied to it

Electric Power Quality is the degree to which the

voltage, frequency, and waveform of a power supply
system conform to established specifications.
The more specific definitions of the electric power quality depend on
the points of view.

1. According to Utility, power quality is 3. In IEEE dictionary, power

reliability. quality is defined as “ The concept
of powering and grounding
sensitive equipment in a matter
2. According to End User POV. It is defines that is suitable to the operation of
as “Any power problem manifested voltage, that equipment”.
current, or frequency deviations that result in
failure or mis operation of customer
equipment”.
In general, electric power quality issues cover the entire
electric power system, but their main emphases are in
the primary and secondary distribution systems.
CLASSIFICATION OF POWER
QUALITY
 STEADY-STATE DISTURBANCE

 TRANSIENT DISTURBANCE
 STEADY-STATE DISTURBANCE
 Which is often periodic and last for a long
period of time.
Two Categories:
Long Duration Voltage Short Duration Voltage
 Over Voltage  Sag
 Under Voltage  Swells
 Sustained Voltage  Interruption
 LONG DURATION VARIATIONS
 A variation is considered to be long duration when the
limits are exceeded for more than one minute.
 Can be either over voltages or under voltages.
Overvoltage and undervoltage generally are not the result of
system faults, but are caused by load variations on the system
and system switching operations.
 OVERVOLTAGE
 An overvoltage is an increase in the rms (Root mean square) ac
voltage greater than 110percent at the power frequency for a
duration longer than 1 min.
Voltage

Time

 Load switching (e.g., switching off a large

CAUSE load or energizing a capacitor bank).
Incorrect tap settings on transformers.
 wiring errors, oversize transformer
 UNDER VOLTAGE
 An undervoltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage
to less than 90 percent at the power frequency for a
duration longer than 1 min.
Voltage

Time
 Opposite of the events that cause overvoltage.

 Load switching on or a capacitor bank switching

CAUSE
off can cause an under voltage.
 Overloaded Utility
 SUSTAINED INTERRUPTIONS
 When the supply voltage has been zero for a period of
time in excess of 1 min, the long-duration voltage
variation is considered a sustained interruption.
 Voltage interruptions longer than 1 min are often
permanent and require human intervention to repair the
system for restoration.
Voltage
Time
 SHORT DURATION VARIATIONS

 Defined as the variations in the supply voltage for

durations not exceeding one minute.

 Short and Temporary disturbance occurring in

power system

 Switching on large loads.

CAUSE  Loose Connection.
 Faults.
 TYPE OF SHORT DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS

1. Voltage sag
Is a decrease in voltage to a value between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in
RMS voltage or current at the power frequency for duration
from 0.5 cycle to 1 min
Typical end-user equipment sensitive
to voltage sags are :

Computers, Programmable logic controllers .

 Voltage sag

 Can cause computers and other sensitive equipment to

malfunction or simply shut off.

 Undervoltage conditions can damage certain types of

electrical equipment.
 2. Voltage Swell
Is define as an increase to between 1.1 and
1.8 RMS voltageor current at the power
frequency for duration from 0.5 to 1 min.

CAUSE
Switching off Heavy
Loads
Time
Enegizing capacitor
Bank
 TRANSIENTS
DISTURBANCE
• "An event that is undesirable and momentary on
nature "
• Usually more obvious in its harmful effect and cost
involve maybe extremely high.

Types 1. IMPULSIVE
2. OSCILLATORY
 Impulsive transient
• Is sudden non-power frequency change in steady state
condition of voltage, current or both. That is un-
directional in polarity ( positive or negative ).
 OSCILLATORY TRANSIENT

• Is sudden non power frequency change in steady state

condition of voltage, current or both.that includes both
positive. And negative polarity.
CAUSE

Lighting, utility fault clearing

and transformer energization
and ferroresonance
In the united states, it, is estimated that the annual
cost of transient power quality problems is
anywhere between 100 million and 3 billion
dollars depending in the year.
TYPES OF DISTURBANCES
Power disturbances can come in many forms, from a
single blink of the lights to a full-blown outage. A power
surge is a momentary increase in voltage whose effect
may be too quick for the eye to see, but long enough to
affect sensitive equipment. Surges are sometimes
transient.
 TYPES OF DISTURBANCES
➔ Slower and longer-lasting effects

Power frequency disturbances can last anywhere from one complete cycle to several seconds or even
minutes.

➔ Effect vary from one piece of equipment to another and with age

Ex. Under ideal conditions, transformers are expected to operate for 30 to 40 years, while industrial
transformers have a life expectancy of just 20 to 25 years.

➔ Event can be measure

These tools include ammeters, voltmeters, multimeters, oscilloscopes, flicker meters, electrostatic
voltmeters, infrared detectors, radio-frequency interference and electromagnetic interference meters,
harmonic and spectrum analyzers, power quality monitors, and various types of wiring and grounding
testers.
 COMMON POWER FREQUENCY DISTURBANCES

➔ Voltage sages

Most common power frequency disturbance

Last from haft of a cycle to several seconds

Due to starting of large loads

➔ Induction motor
➔ Arc furnance
Induction motor

An induction motor or
asynchronous motor is an AC
electric motor in which the electric
current in the rotor needed to
produce torque is obtained by
electromagnetic induction from
the magnetic field of the stator
winding. An induction motor can
therefore be made without
electrical connections to the rotor.
Arc furnance

An electric arc furnace is a furnace that

heats material by means of an electric
arc. Industrial arc furnaces range in
size from small units of approximately
one-tonne capacity up to about 400-
tonne units used for secondary
steelmaking.
50 HP, 460 V, 60 A Induction Motor If
circuit feeding the motor has high
impedance, appreciable sag is
produced
ARC FURNACE

❖ Large capacitor banks

❖ Harmonic filters
Large capacitor banks

As with an individual capacitor, banks of

capacitors are used to store electrical energy and
condition the flow of that energy. Increasing the
number of capacitors in a bank will increase the
capacity of energy that can be stored on a single
device.
 Harmonic filters

Harmonic filters are series or parallel

resonant circuits designed to shunt or
block harmonic currents. They reduce
the harmonic currents flowing in the
power system from the source and
thereby reduce the harmonic voltage
distortion in the system.
UTILITY FAULTS
In an electric power system, a fault or fault
current is any abnormal electric current.

OVER HEAD POWER LINES

overhead power line is a structure used in
electric power transmission and distribution to
transmit electrical energy across large distances
Example;

➔ Lightening strikes
➔ Contact with bird,
tree, animals
 ➔ Insulator failure
the main cause of failure of
overhead line insulator, is flash
over, occurs in between line and
earth during abnormal over
voltage in the system. During
this flash over, the huge heat
produced by arcing, causes
puncher in insulator body.
Utility attempts to clear the fault
by opening and closing the
faulted circuit using re-closure
FLICKER

Magnitude of voltage and frequency changes

Caused when a load that requires large current

during start up is initially energized

Example ;

➔ Elevators
➔ Arc furnance
➔ Arc welders
 SWITCHING OF REACTIVE LOADS

Transformers and capacitors, create transients in the kilo-hertz range.

This figure A shows phase-neutral transients resulting from addition of

capactive load.
Figure b shows neutral-ground transient resulting from addition of inductive
load .
Electromechanical switching device interact wit h the
distributed inductance and capacitance in the AC
distribution and loads to create electrical fast transients
(EFTs). For example, Figure C shows phase- neutral
transients resulting from arching and bouncing contactor
 HARMONIC DISTORTION

• Harmonic distortions are common voltage and current variations due to changes in
frequencies within the electrical distribution systems. In particular, there are
deviations from the typical sinusoidal variations in voltages or currents.

• Harmonic distortions is caused by nonlinear devices in the distribution system. Here,

a nonlinear device is defined as one in which the current is not proportional to the
applied voltage, that is, while the applied voltage is perfectly sinusoidal, the resulting
current is distorted. Increasing the voltage by a small amount may cause the current
to double and take on a different wave shape.
POWER SYSTEM WITH AC SOURCE AND
ELECTRICAL LOAD
IDEAL SINE WAVE
DISTORTED WAVEFORM
 TYPES OF LOADS

Linear load Non-linear load

• Linear loads are those in which voltage and • Are loads in which the current waveform does not
current signals follow one another very resemble the applied voltage waveform due to a
closely. number of reasons.
• In the relationship is better known as Ohm’s • Ohm’s law cannot describe the relation between V
law and states that the current through a and I.
resistance fed by a varying voltage source is • Nonlinear loads cause a number of disturbances
equal to the relation between the voltage and like voltage waveform distortion, overheating in
the resistance, as described by: transformers and other power devices, overcurrent
I(t) = V(t)/R on equipment-neutral connection leads, telephone
interference, and microprocessor control problems,
among others.
 HARMONIC DISTORTION SOURCES

LOADS
TRANSFORMERS
THE GENERATION STAGE
(SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS)
 HARMONIC DISTORTION SOURCES

LOAD
• Single phase loads: electronic equipment, supplied from the low voltage
power system, rectifies the ac power to dc power for internal use at different
dc voltage levels such as (TV’s Video recorders, computers, Printers)
• Three-phase loads: three-phase rectifiers are used for higher power
applications. (Adjustable speed drives, Large UPS’s)

uninterruptible power supply

ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVES UNINTERRUPTIBLE
POWER SUPPLY
 HARMONIC DISTORTION SOURCES

TRANSFORMERS
• Harmonic in transformers cause an increase in iron and copper losses.
Voltage distortion increase losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents and
causes overstressing of the insulation material used.
 HARMONIC DISTORTION SOURCES

GENERATION STAGE

• Motor and Generators: harmonic voltage and current cause increased heating in
rotating machines due to additional iron and copper losses at harmonic frequencies.
This lowers the machine’s efficiency and affects the torque developed.
• Capacitor banks: many industrial and commercial electrical loads have capacitors
installed to compensate for low power factors. Most capacitors are designed to
operate at a maximum of 110% of rated voltage and at 135% of their kvar ratings.
 TYPES OF
WAVEFORMS
HARMONIC DISTORTION
NOISE
NOTCHES
SAG
SWELL
SURGE