Chapter 3

Foundation of Group Behavior

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Definitions of a group
• Group(s)
– Two or more individuals interacting and
interdependent, who have come together to
achieve particular objectives.
– Any numbers of people who interact with one
another; are psychologically aware of one
another; and perceive themselves to be a group.”
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 Definitions of a group…
• A work group is a collection of people who share
most, if not all, of the following characteristics:
– a definable membership

– Group consciousness

– a sense of shared purpose

– Interdependence

– Interaction; and

– Ability to act in a unitary manner

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 Why people form groups?
• Certain tasks can be performed only through the combined
efforts of a number of individuals working together:
– The variety of experience and expertise among members provides a
synergetic effect which can be applied to the increasingly complex
problems of modern organizations.

• Collusion between members: in order to modify formal

working arrangements more to their liking – for example, by
sharing or rotating unpopular tasks.
– Membership therefore provides the individual with opportunities for
initiative and creativity.
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 Why people form groups?

• Companionship and a source of mutual understanding

and support from colleagues:
– This can help in solving work problems, and also to
militate against stressful or demanding working conditions.

• Membership provides the individual with a sense of

belonging.
– It provides a feeling of identity, and the chance to acquire
role recognition and status within the group or team.
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Why people form groups?

• Guidelines on generally acceptable behavior:

– It helps to clarify ambiguous situations

such as, the extent to which official rules and regulations
are expected to be adhered to in practice, the rules of the
game, and what is seen as the correct actual behavior.

• Protection for its membership:

– Group or team members collaborate to protect their
interests from outside pressures or threats.
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 Types of groups

• On the basis of norms and rules, groups can be

categorised into formal and informal.
– Formal Group is a designated work group defined by
the organization’s structure.
– Informal Group is a group that is neither formally
structured nor organizationally determined; appears in
response to the need for social contact.

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1. Formal Groups

• Formal groups

– are groups that intentionally established by a manager to accomplish

specific organizational objectives.

– They are those defined by the organization’s structure with designated

work assignments establishing tasks.

– The organization creates such a group to perform a specific task, which

typically involves the use of resources to create a product such as a report,

decision, service, or commodity.

– Formal groups fulfill two basic functions: organizational and individual

functions.
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 Formal Groups…
Contributions of formal groups to organizations are;

• Accomplish complex, interdependent tasks that are beyond the

capabilities of individuals.

• Create new ideas

• Coordinate interdepartmental efforts

• Solve complex problems requiring varied information &

perspectives

• Implement action plans

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Socialize & train new comers
 Formal groups

Contributions of formal group’s to individuals are;

• Satisfy needs for affiliation

• Confirm identity and enhance self-esteem

• Test and share perceptions of social reality.

• Reduce feelings of insecurity & powerlessness

• Provide a mechanism for solving personal &

interpersonal problems.
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Features of formal groups

• Designed deliberately by the top management to perform certain

activities which contribute to the achievement of the organizations
objective.
• Formal structure is based on the principle of organizing
• Concentration of the organization is on performance of the jobs not
on the people who perform the jobs.

• People are in hierarchy, status is designated clearly and the

authority and responsibility assigned to each job should be adhered

strictly.

• Coordination and control are archived through rules, regulations,

procedures, etc.

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 Features of formal groups

• Formal groups may be permanent or temporary.

• Permanent work groups, or command groups in the vertical

structure, often appear on organization charts as departments,
divisions, or teams.
– Such groups can vary in size from very small departments or teams of
just a few people to large divisions employing a hundred or more people.
– permanent work groups are officially created to perform a specific
function on an ongoing basis.
– They continue to exist until a decision is made to change or reconfigure
the organization for some reason.
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2. Informal groups

• Informal groups emerge without being officially

designated by the organization.
• They form spontaneously and are based on
personal relationships or special interests, and not
on any specific organizational endorsement.

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Informal groups

• It can be

• Friendship groups, for example, consist of persons with

natural affinities for one another.
– They tend to work together, sit together, take breaks together, and
even do things together outside of the workplace.

• Interest groups consist of persons who share common

interests.
– These may be job-related interests, such as an intense desire to
learn more about computers, or non-work interests, such as
community service, sports, or religion.
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 Features Informal groups

• No place in the organizational structure

– Informal groups are formed by various members themselves, it
has no official sanctity.

• It has common objective

– These groups are formed based on commonality of culture,
religious function, liking for each other and common interests.

• It has positive or negative impact on the organization

– Their contribution for success of formal group is immense if
properly handled by official authority.
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 Features Informal groups…
• Leadership
– These groups evolve their own structure, elect their own
leaders and have followers.
– They work based on group norms, social norms and code of
conduct.

• They represent the human side of an organization.

• The group exists without any rigid rules.
• Their common interest is bond for existence.

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 Why do people join informal groups?

• Mutual benefit
• Friendship
• The need to fulfill social needs/ affiliation
• Physical work condition
• Administrative practice

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 Contributions of informal groups to individuals

• Satisfaction of social & affiliation needs.

• Satisfaction of needs for security & support.
• Enhanced status for members if the group is perceived by
others as prestigious.
• Enhanced feelings of self-esteem if a member is valued
by other group members.
• Feeling more competent by sharing the power of the
group to influence and achieve.
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Contributions of informal groups to organizations

• Solidify common social values and expectations congruent with

organizational culture.
• provide & enforce guidelines for appropriate behavior

• Provide social satisfaction unlikely for anonymous individual

workers to experience.
• Provide a sense of identity that often includes a certain degree of
status.
• Enhance members’ access of information

• Help to integrate new employees into the informal expectations of

the organization.
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 Disadvantages of informal groups to organizations

• Resistance to change

• Role conflict

• Rumor

• Conformity /compliance

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Considering the degree of intimacy groups can be
divided into:
1. Primary group
• There is an intimate face-to-face relationship among the
members and the members are having ‘we feeling’ to the
maximum.
• Family, play groups and village community come under
this category.

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2. Secondary group
• Here the relationships are more or less casual
and marked by common interest.
• Clubs, trade unions etc. are under this category

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3. In-group/ we group
• Group members identify themselves with the group
which has a common objective and common interest.
• They have a sense of ‘we’ feeling.
• Members of the in groups treat others as outsiders.
• These groups can be formed on the basis of relationship,
same country, similar political interests and economic
interests etc

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4. Out-group
• It is the group in which the members are
considered as outsiders by other group members.
• Groups other than the in-group are generally
called out-groups.

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• Besides the above mentioned ones group can also classified into
various categories as;
1. Organised groups
• The groups which are formed for specific purpose and are carefully
planned is called organised groups.
• The family, the school etc. are also called organised groups.

2. Spontaneous groups
• The groups are formed without any careful planning.
• Audience may be considered as spontaneous group after listening
to the speech by arenowned speaker.
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3. Command groups

• Command groups are specified by the organisational chart.

• It consists of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to

the supervisor.

4. Task groups

• A group of people work together to achieve a common task.

• In many situations there is a specified time period.

• This can be referred to as task forces.

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5. Functional groups
• Functional group is generally created by the organisation to
accomplish specific goals within an unspecified time frame.
• Functional group generally exists after achievement of current
goals and objects.

6. Interest groups
• It usually continues over time and may last longer than general
informal groups.
• It is seen that the interest of the member may not be part of the same
organisational department but they are bound by some common
interest.
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7. Friendship groups
• These groups are formed by the members who enjoy
similar social activities, political beliefs, religious
values and other common bonds.

8. Reference groups
• This is the group where the people evaluate
themselves.
• Reference groups have a strong influence on
members’ behaviour
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 The Stage of Group Development

1. Forming Stage
– The first stage in group development, characterized by
much uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure,
and leadership.
– Members are trying to determine what types of
behavior are acceptable.
– Initial entry of members to a group.

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 – Members concern’s including:
• Getting to know each other.
• Discovering what is considered acceptable behavior.
• Determining the group’s real task.
• Defining group rules.

– Stage is complete when members have begun to think

of themselves as part of a group.

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2. Storming Stage
• The second stage in group development, characterized by
intragroup conflict.

• Members accept the existence of the group, but there is resistance

to constraints on individuality.

• Conflict over who will control the group.

• It is a period of high emotionality and tension among group

members.

• When this step completed, there will be a relatively clear hierarchy

of leadership within the group.
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Storming…
• Members concern’s including:
– Formation of coalitions and cliques.

– Dealing with outside demands.

– Clarifying membership expectations.

– Dealing with obstacles to group goals.

– Understanding members’ interpersonal styles.

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3. Norming Stage
The third stage is one in which close relationships develop
and the group demonstrates cohesiveness.
• There is now a strong sense of group identity and
friendship.
• This norming stage is complete when the group structure
solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of
expectations of what defines correct member behavior.

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• There is now a strong sense of group identity and
friendship.
• The point at which the group really begins to
come together as a coordinated unit.

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Norming…
Members concern’s including:
– Holding the group together.

– Dealing with divergent views and criticisms.

– Dealing with a premature sense of accomplishment.

• Stage is complete when the group structure solidifies

and the group has assimilated a common set of
expectations of what defines correct member
behavior.
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4. Performing Stage
• The structure at this point is fully functional and accepted.

• Group energy has moved from getting to know and

understand each other to performing.
• For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in
their development.
• Marks the emergence of a mature, organized, and well-
functioning group.

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Performing…
• Members deal with complex tasks and handle internal
disagreements in creative ways.
• Primary challenge is to continue to improve
relationships and performance.

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5. Adjourning Stage
• For temporary committees, teams, task forces, and
similar groups that have a limited task to perform,
there is an adjourning stage.
• In this stage, the group prepares for its
disbandment. Attention is directed toward
wrapping up activities.

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Adjourning…

• Responses of group members vary in this stage. Some are

positive, relaxing in the group’s accomplishments. Others
may be depressed over the loss of camaraderie and
friendships.

• Particularly important for temporary groups.

• A well-integrated group is:

– Able to disband when its work is finished

– Willing to work together in the future

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 Group task and productivity

Synergy
• is a biological term referring to an action of two or more
substances that result in an effect that is more than the
mere summation of the individual substances;
• the whole is more than the sum of its parts

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 Group task and productivity…

Process loss

• Is the difference between what is actually produced by a group and what could have

been produced by the group when you consider its inputs (2 + 2 = 3).

Social Loafing

• the tendency to exert less effort in a group than in individual works.

– Social loafing can impact work-group effectiveness.

– as group size increases Social loafing increases

• To minimize social loafing

– Made individual efforts measurable,

– Automate activities
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Team

• A team is a small number of people with complementary skills

who are committed to a common mission, performance

goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually

accountable.

• Thus while not all groups are teams, all teams can be
considered groups.
• Groups that work closely together toward a common objective,

and are accountable to one another.

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Teams are task groups that have matured to performing stage.
 Team…
A group becomes a team when the following criteria are
met:
– Leadership becomes a shared activity

– Accountability shifts from strictly individual to both individual

and collective
– the group develops its own purpose or mission

– Problem solving becomes a way of life, not a part-time activity

– Effectiveness is measured by the group’s collective outcomes

and products.
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 Teams Vs groups: What is the difference?

Teams Groups
1. Collective performance1. Objective 1. Share information
2. Shared leadership 2. Leader 2. They have leader
3. Individual and Mutual 3. Accountability 3. Individual
4. Collective 4. Work-products 4. Individual
5. Open ended/problem 5. Meetings 5. Efficient
solving
6. Skill 6. Random and varied
6. Complementary
7. Performance 7. sum of individual
7. Collective and
outputs
synergistic

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 How groups control their members

• Effective groups are groups that control their members'

behavior and channel it in the right direction.
• Three mechanisms through which group, control their
members' behavior are

– Roles
– Rules, and
– Norms.

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 How groups control their members

• Rules
– a regulation or principle governing conduct or
procedure within a particular sphere
– Dos and don'ts
– Group rules can be formal or informal.
– Formal policies are explicitly agreed upon by the group
members and may even be written down

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 How groups control their members
• Roles
– A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone
occupying a given position in a social unit
– Whereas rules delineate the proper behaviors of all members in a
group, roles define the set of behaviors appropriate to particular
positions occupied by specific individuals.
– Roles also specify authority relationships, including who in the
group has the right to call meetings, set agendas, and assign
tasks to group members.
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How groups control their members
• Norms
– Group Norms are set of beliefs, feelings, and attitude
commonly shared by group members.
– These are informal rules of standards of behavior that apply
to group members.
– These are prescriptions of behavior accepted and
determined by the group.
– Norms differ among groups, communities and societies, but
they all have them.
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How groups control their members

• Types of Norms
– Performance norms
– Appearance norms
– Behavior norms

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 How groups control their members

• Performance Norms
– is set by the individual worker and approved by the
superiors.
– These are general norms, industry standards prevailing
in a particular type of industry and restricted to
geographical limits.
– Upper and lower limits

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How groups control their members

• Appearance Norms
– This type of norm informs or guides us as to how we should
look or what our physical appearance should be.
– what fashion we should wear or how we should style our
hair or any number of areas related to how we should look.
– This norm is centred on how we should act in social
settings

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How groups control their members
• Behavior Norms
– Guidelines for general behavior are issued by the management
so that all the employees display behavior in an identical
manner.
– These guidelines may cover various aspects relating to the work.

– This may include time management, punctuality, salutation,

showing respect to the views of other members’ behavior while
on shop floor and level of professionalism that an individual
should possess.
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Group decision making

Deciding to use a team in group decision making when:

– Many perspectives are needed

– Acceptance of the decision is critical

– The problem is complex or unstructured

– Individuals judgments are unreliable

– Individuals are unwilling to take necessary risks

– You want to develop team members’ team-related skills

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 Group decision making

Advantages
– More knowledge through pooling of group resources

– Increased acceptance & commitment due to voice in decisions

– Greater understanding due to Involvement in decision stages

Disadvantages
– Pressure in groups to conform

– Domination by one forceful member or dominant clique

– Amount of time required, because group is slower than individual

to make a decision
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 Group
Group Decision
Decision Making
Making (cont’d)
(cont’d)
 Strengths  Weaknesses
– More complete information – More time consuming
– Increased diversity of views (slower)
– Higher quality of decisions – Increased pressure to
(more accuracy) conform
– Increased acceptance of – Domination by one or a few
solutions members
– Ambiguous responsibility
Group Decision making Problems …
Herd Behavior

 The behaviour exhibited by individuals in a group who act together

without planned direction.

Group polarization

 It refers to the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more
extreme than the initial inclination of its members.

Groupthink

 A process of reasoning or decision making by a group, especially one

characterized by uncritical acceptance or conformity to a perceived
majority view.
Group Problem Solving Techniques
– Consensus
– Brainstorming
– Nominal Group Technique
– Delphi Technique
– Computer-Aided Decision Making

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 Group decision making

Consensus:
– is the presenting of opinions and gaining agreement to support a
decision.
– In these groups, members meet face to face and rely on both
verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate with each other.
– Interacting groups often censor themselves and pressure
individual members toward conformity of opinion.
• Brainstorming, the nominal group technique, and electronic meetings have
been proposed as ways to reduce many of the problems inherent in the
traditional interacting group.

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Group decision making
Brainstorming:
• is the process to generate a quantity of ideas.

• a spontaneous group discussion to produce ideas and ways of

solving problems
• Group members actively generate as many ideas and alternatives
as possible, and they do so relatively quickly and without
inhibitions.
• It is meant to overcome pressures for conformity in the
interacting group that retard the development of creative
alternatives.
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Group decision making

Brainstorming:
• In a typical brainstorming session, a half dozen to a dozen
people sit around a table. The process is;
1. The group leader states the problem clearly.
2. Members then “free-wheel” as many alternatives as they can in
a given length of time.
3. No criticism is allowed, and all the alternatives are recorded for
latter discussion and analysis.

• One idea stimulates others, and group members are

encouraged to “think the unusual.”
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Group decision making
The nominal group technique:
– is the process to generate ideas and evaluate solutions.”
– enables everyone to participate and have his/her ideas heard
without hostile criticism or distortions.
– A structured voting procedure is used to prioritize responses to
the nominal question.
• This restricts discussion or interpersonal communication during the
decision-making process.

– Group members are all physically present, but members operate

independently.
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Group decision making

The nominal group technique:

– Specifically, a problem is presented, and then the
following steps take place:
1. Members meet as a group
– but, before any discussion take place, each member independently
writes down his or her ideas on the problem.

2. After this silent period, each member presents one idea to the
group. Each member takes his or her turn.

.
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3. The group now discusses the ideas for clarity & evaluates them.
4. Each group member silently and independently rank-orders the
ideas.
5. The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final
decision.

 The chief advantage of the nominal group technique is

that it permits the group to meet formally but does not
restrict independent thinking, as does the interacting
group.

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Group decision making
The nominal group technique
• The advantage of the nominal group technique is that it
permits the group to meet formally but does not restrict
independent thinking, as does the interacting group.

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 Group decision making
Delphi Technique
• Is important for groups who do not meet face to face.
• Leader distributes topic or task.
• Each member responds.
• A leader collects responses and sends back to team and
solicits feedback.
• Process is repeated until there is resolution on the issue
in question.
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Group decision making
The computer-assisted group
– The computer-assisted group or electronic meeting blends the
nominal group technique with sophisticated computer
technology.
– Up to 50 people sit around a horseshoe-shaped table, empty
except for a series of computer terminals.

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 – Issues are presented to participants, and they type their
responses onto their computer screen.
– Individual comments, as well as aggregate votes, are
displayed on a projection screen.
– The major advantages of electronic meetings are
anonymity, honesty, and speed.

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 End of Ch.3!!

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