Data Mining:
Concepts and Techniques
— Chapter 2 —
Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Simon Fraser University
©2011 Han, Kamber, and Pei. All rights reserved.
1
Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical Descriptions
Boxplot: graphic display of five-number summary
Histogram: x-axis are values, y-axis repres. frequencies
Quantile plot: each value xi is paired with fi indicating
that approximately 100 fi % of data are xi
Quantile-quantile (q-q) plot: graphs the quantiles of
one univariant distribution against the corresponding
quantiles of another
Scatter plot: each pair of values is a pair of coordinates
and plotted as points in the plane
2
Histogram Analysis
Histogram: Graph display of
tabulated frequencies, shown as 40
bars 35
It shows what proportion of cases 30
fall into each of several categories
25
Differs from a bar chart in that it is
20
the area of the bar that denotes the
value, not the height as in bar 15
charts, a crucial distinction when the 10
categories are not of uniform width
5
The categories are usually specified
0
as non-overlapping intervals of 10000 30000 50000 70000 90000
some variable. The categories (bars)
must be adjacent
3
Histograms Often Tell More than Boxplots
The two histograms
shown in the left may
have the same boxplot
representation
The same values
for: min, Q1,
median, Q3, max
But they have rather
different data
distributions
4
Quantile Plot
Displays all of the data (allowing the user to assess both
the overall behavior and unusual occurrences)
Plots quantile information
For a data x data sorted in increasing order, f
i i
indicates that approximately 100 fi% of the data are
below or equal to the value xi
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 5
Quantile-Quantile (Q-Q) Plot
Graphs the quantiles of one univariate distribution against the
corresponding quantiles of another
View: Is there is a shift in going from one distribution to another?
Example shows unit price of items sold at Branch 1 vs. Branch 2 for
each quantile. Unit prices of items sold at Branch 1 tend to be lower
than those at Branch 2.
6
Scatter plot
Provides a first look at bivariate data to see clusters of
points, outliers, etc
Each pair of values is treated as a pair of coordinates and
plotted as points in the plane
7
Positively and Negatively Correlated Data
The left half fragment is positively
correlated
The right half is negative correlated
8
Uncorrelated Data
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Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data
Data Objects and Attribute Types
Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data
Data Visualization
Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity
Summary
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Data Visualization
Why data visualization?
Gain insight into an information space by mapping data onto graphical
primitives
Provide qualitative overview of large data sets
Search for patterns, trends, structure, irregularities, relationships among
data
Help find interesting regions and suitable parameters for further
quantitative analysis
Provide a visual proof of computer representations derived
Categorization of visualization methods:
Pixel-oriented visualization techniques
Geometric projection visualization techniques
Icon-based visualization techniques
Hierarchical visualization techniques
Visualizing complex data and relations
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Pixel-Oriented Visualization Techniques
For a data set of m dimensions, create m windows on the screen, one
for each dimension
The m dimension values of a record are mapped to m pixels at the
corresponding positions in the windows
The colors of the pixels reflect the corresponding values
(a) Income (b) Credit Limit (c) transaction volume (d) age
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Laying Out Pixels in Circle Segments
To save space and show the connections among multiple dimensions,
space filling is often done in a circle segment
(a) Representing a data record
(b) Laying out pixels in circle segment
in circle segment
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Geometric Projection Visualization Techniques
Visualization of geometric transformations and projections
of the data
Methods
Direct visualization
Scatterplot and scatterplot matrices
Landscapes
Projection pursuit technique: Help users find meaningful
projections of multidimensional data
Prosection views
Hyperslice
Parallel coordinates
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Ribbons with Twists Based on Vorticity
Direct Data Visualization
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 15
Scatterplot Matrices
Used by ermission of M. Ward, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Matrix of scatterplots (x-y-diagrams) of the k-dim. data [total of (k2/2-k) scatterplots]
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Landscapes
Used by permission of B. Wright, Visible Decisions Inc.
news articles
visualized as
a landscape
Visualization of the data as perspective landscape
The data needs to be transformed into a (possibly artificial) 2D
spatial representation which preserves the characteristics of the data
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Parallel Coordinates
n equidistant axes which are parallel to one of the screen axes and
correspond to the attributes
The axes are scaled to the [minimum, maximum]: range of the
corresponding attribute
Every data item corresponds to a polygonal line which intersects each
of the axes at the point which corresponds to the value for the
attribute
• • •
Attr. 1 Attr. 2 Attr. 3 Attr. k
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Parallel Coordinates of a Data Set
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Icon-Based Visualization Techniques
Visualization of the data values as features of icons
Typical visualization methods
Chernoff Faces
Stick Figures
General techniques
Shape coding: Use shape to represent certain
information encoding
Color icons: Use color icons to encode more
information
Tile bars: Use small icons to represent the relevant
feature vectors in document retrieval
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Chernoff Faces
A way to display variables on a two-dimensional surface, e.g., let x be
eyebrow slant, y be eye size, z be nose length, etc.
The figure shows faces produced using 10 characteristics--head
eccentricity, eye size, eye spacing, eye eccentricity, pupil size,
eyebrow slant, nose size, mouth shape, mouth size, and mouth
opening): Each assigned one of 10 possible values, generated using
Mathematica (S. Dickson)
REFERENCE: Gonick, L. and Smith, W.
The Cartoon Guide to Statistics. New York:
Harper Perennial, p. 212, 1993
Weisstein, Eric W. "Chernoff Face." From
MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.
mathworld.wolfram.com/ChernoffFace.html
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Stick Figure
A census data
figure showing
age, income,
used by permission of G. Grinstein, University of Massachusettes at Lowell
gender,
education, etc.
A 5-piece stick
figure (1 body
and 4 limbs w.
different
angle/length)
Two attributes mapped to axes, remaining attributes mapped to angle or length of limbs”. Look at texture pattern 22
Hierarchical Visualization Techniques
Visualization of the data using a hierarchical
partitioning into subspaces
Methods
Dimensional Stacking
Worlds-within-Worlds
Tree-Map
Cone Trees
InfoCube
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Dimensional Stacking
attribute 4
attribute 2
attribute 3
attribute 1
Partitioning of the n-dimensional attribute space in 2-D
subspaces, which are ‘stacked’ into each other
Partitioning of the attribute value ranges into classes. The
important attributes should be used on the outer levels.
Adequate for data with ordinal attributes of low cardinality
But, difficult to display more than nine dimensions
Important to map dimensions appropriately
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Dimensional Stacking
Used by permission of M. Ward, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Visualization of oil mining data with longitude and latitude mapped to
the outer x-, y-axes and ore grade and depth mapped to the inner x-, y-
axes
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Worlds-within-Worlds
Assign the function and two most important parameters to innermost
world
Fix all other parameters at constant values - draw other (1 or 2 or 3
dimensional worlds choosing these as the axes)
Software that uses this paradigm
N–vision: Dynamic
interaction through data
glove and stereo
displays, including
rotation, scaling (inner)
and translation
(inner/outer)
Auto Visual: Static
interaction by means of
queries
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Tree-Map
Screen-filling method which uses a hierarchical partitioning of
the screen into regions depending on the attribute values
The x- and y-dimension of the screen are partitioned
alternately according to the attribute values (classes)
MSR Netscan Image
Ack.: http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/treemap-history/all102001.jpg 27
Tree-Map of a File System (Schneiderman)
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InfoCube
A 3-D visualization technique where hierarchical
information is displayed as nested semi-transparent
cubes
The outermost cubes correspond to the top level
data, while the subnodes or the lower level data
are represented as smaller cubes inside the
outermost cubes, and so on
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Three-D Cone Trees
3D cone tree visualization technique works
well for up to a thousand nodes or so
First build a 2D circle tree that arranges its
nodes in concentric circles centered on the
root node
Cannot avoid overlaps when projected to
2D
G. Robertson, J. Mackinlay, S. Card. “Cone
Trees: Animated 3D Visualizations of
Hierarchical Information”, ACM SIGCHI'91
Graph from Nadeau Software Consulting
website: Visualize a social network data set
that models the way an infection spreads
from one person to the next
Ack.: http://nadeausoftware.com/articles/visualization
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Visualizing Complex Data and Relations
Visualizing non-numerical data: text and social networks
Tag cloud: visualizing user-generated tags
The importance of
tag is represented
by font size/color
Besides text data,
there are also
methods to visualize
relationships, such as
visualizing social
networks
Newsmap: Google News Stories in 2005
Summary
Gain insight into the data by:
Basic statistical data description: central tendency, dispersion,
graphical displays
Data visualization: map data onto graphical primitives
Above steps are the beginning of data preprocessing.
Many methods have been developed but still an active area of
research.
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References
W. Cleveland, Visualizing Data, Hobart Press, 1993
T. Dasu and T. Johnson. Exploratory Data Mining and Data Cleaning. John Wiley, 2003
U. Fayyad, G. Grinstein, and A. Wierse. Information Visualization in Data Mining and
Knowledge Discovery, Morgan Kaufmann, 2001
L. Kaufman and P. J. Rousseeuw. Finding Groups in Data: an Introduction to Cluster
Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
H. V. Jagadish, et al., Special Issue on Data Reduction Techniques. Bulletin of the Tech.
Committee on Data Eng., 20(4), Dec. 1997
D. A. Keim. Information visualization and visual data mining, IEEE trans. on Visualization
and Computer Graphics, 8(1), 2002
D. Pyle. Data Preparation for Data Mining. Morgan Kaufmann, 1999
S. Santini and R. Jain,” Similarity measures”, IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence, 21(9), 1999
E. R. Tufte. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 2nd ed., Graphics Press,
2001
C. Yu , et al., Visual data mining of multimedia data for social and behavioral studies,
Information Visualization, 8(1), 2009
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