Lecture 6

Communication
Networks and Services
Internet Routing Protocols
DHCP, NAT, and Mobile IP
 Lecture 6
Communication
Networks and Services
Internet Routing Protocols
Outline
 Basic Routing
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Autonomous Systems
 Global Internet viewed as collection of autonomous
systems.
 Autonomous system (AS) is a set of routers or
networks administered by a single organization
 Same routing protocol need not be run within the AS
 But, to the outside world, an AS should present a
consistent picture of what ASs are reachable through it
 Stub AS: has only a single connection to the outside
world.
 Multihomed AS: has multiple connections to the outside
world, but refuses to carry transit traffic
 Transit AS: has multiple connections to the outside
world, and can carry transit and local traffic.
AS Number
 For exterior routing, an AS needs a globally unique
AS 16-bit integer number
 Currently, there are about 11,000 registered ASs in
Internet (and growing)
 Stub AS, which is the most common type, does not
need an AS number since the prefixes are placed at
the provider’s routing table
 Transit AS needs an AS number
 Request an AS number from the ARIN, RIPE and
APNIC
 ARIN: American Registry for Internet Numbers
 RIPE: Réseaux IP Européens
 APNIC: Asia Pacific Network Information Centre
Inter and Intra Domain Routing
Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP): routing within AS
• RIP, OSPF, IGRP, EIGRP, IS-IS
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP): routing between AS’s
• BGPv4
Border Gateways perform IGP & EGP routing

IGP
R EGP IGP
R R
R
R
R
AS A
AS C

R
R
IGP
AS B
Inter and Intra Domain Routing

Image Source: www.netacad.com

Inter and Intra Domain Routing
Outline
 Basic Routing
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
 RFC 1058
 Uses the distance-vector algorithm
 Runs on top of UDP, port number 520
 Metric: number of hops
 Max limited to 15
 suitable for small networks (local area
environments)
 value of 16 is reserved to represent infinity
 small number limits the count-to-infinity problem
RIP Operation
 Router sends update message to neighbors every
30 sec
 A router expects to receive an update message
from each of its neighbors within 180 seconds in the
worst case
 If router does not receive update message from
neighbor X within this limit, it assumes the link to X
has failed and sets the corresponding minimum cost
to 16 (infinity)
 Uses split horizon with poisoned reverse
RIP Protocol
 Routers run RIP in active mode (advertise distance
vector tables)
 Hosts can run RIP in passive mode (update
distance vector tables, but do not advertise)
 RIP datagrams broadcast over LANs & specifically
addressed on pt-pt or multi-access non-broadcast
nets
 Two RIP packet types:
 request to ask neighbor for distance vector table
 response to advertise distance vector table
 periodically; in response to request; triggered
Outline
 Basic Routing
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Open Shortest Path First
 RFC 2328 (v2)
 Fixes some of the deficiencies in RIP
 Enables each router to learn complete network
topology
 Each router monitors the link state to each neighbor
and floods the link-state information to other routers
 Each router builds an identical link-state database
 Allows router to build shortest path tree with router
as root
 OSPF typically converges faster than RIP when
there is a failure in the network
OSPF Features
 Multiple routes to a given destination, one per type of
service
 Support for variable-length subnetting by including the
subnet mask in the routing message
 Distribution of traffic over multiple paths of equal cost
 Uses notion of area to partition sites into subsets
 Support host-specific routes as well as net-specific routes
 Designated router to minimize table maintenance
overhead
Flooding
 Used in OSPF to distribute link state (LS) information
 Forward incoming packet to all ports except where
packet came in
 Packet eventually reaches destination as long as there
is a path between the source and destination
 Generates exponential number of packet transmissions
 Approaches to limit # of transmissions:
 Use a TTL at each packet; won’t flood if TTL is reached
 Each router adds its identifier to header of packet before
it floods the packet; won’t flood if its identifier is detected
 Each packet from a given source is identified with a
unique sequence number; won’t flood if sequence
number is same
Example OSPF Topology
10.5.1.2 10.5.1.4
10.5.1.1 10.5.1.6

10.5.1.3 10.5.1.5
At steady state:
 All routers have same LS database

 Know how many routers in network

 Interfaces & links between routers

 Cost of each link

 Occasional Hello messages (10 sec) & LS updates sent (30 min)
OSPF Network
 To improve scalability, AS may be partitioned into areas
 Area is identified by 32-bit Area ID
 Router in area only knows complete topology inside area & limits
the flooding of link-state information to area
 Area border routers summarize info from other areas
 Each area must be connected to backbone area (0.0.0.0)
 Distributes routing info between areas
 Internal router has all links to nets within the same area
 Area border router has links to more than one area
 Backbone router has links connected to the backbone
OSPF Areas
To another AS

N1 R1 N5

N2 R3 R6 N4 R7

R2 N6
R4
R5

N3

Area 0.0.0.2
Area 0.0.0.1 R8 Area 0.0.0.0

ABR: 3, 6, 8
N7
IR: 1,2,7
BR: 3,4,5,6,8
R = router
Area 0.0.0.3 N = network
Neighbor, Adjacent & Designated
Routers
 Neighbor routers: two routers that have interfaces to a
common network
 Neighbors are discovered dynamically by Hello protocol
 Each neighbor of a router described by a state
 Adjacent router: neighbor routers become adjacent when
they synchronize topology databases by exchange of link
state information
 Neighbors on point-to-point links become adjacent
 Routers on multiaccess nets become adjacent only to designated &
backup designated routers
 Reduces size of topological database & routing traffic
Designated Routers
 Reduces number of adjacencies
 Elected by each multiaccess network after
neighbor discovery by hello protocol
 Election based on priority & id fields
 Generates link advertisements that list routers
attached to a multi-access network
 Forms adjacencies with routers on multi-access
network
 Backup prepared to take over if designated
router fails
Link State Advertisements
 Link state info exchanged by adjacent routers to allow
 area topology databases to be maintained
 inter-area & inter-AS routes to be advertised
OSPF Protocol
 OSPF packets transmitted directly on IP
datagrams; Protocol ID 89
 OSPF packets sent to multicast address
224.0.0.5 (allOSPFRouters on pt-2-pt and
broadcast nets)
 OSPF packets sent on specific IP addresses
on non-broadcast nets
 Five OSPF packet types:
 Hello
 Database description
 Link state request; Link state update; Link state
ack
OSPF Header
0 8 16 31

Version Type Packet length

Router ID

Area ID
OSPF
common
Checksum Authentication type header

Authentication

Authentication

OSPF
packet
Data
body

 Type: Hello, Database description, Link state request, Link

state update, Link state acknowledgements
OSPF Stages

1. Discover neighbors by sending Hello

packets (every 10 sec) and designated
router elected in multiaccess networks
2. Adjacencies are established & link state
databases are synchronized
3. Link state information is propagated &
routing tables are calculated
Outline
 Basic Routing
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Exterior Gateway Protocols
 Within each AS, there is a consistent set of routes
connecting the constituent networks
 The Internet is woven into a coherent whole by
Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs) that operate
between AS’s
 EGP enables two AS’s to exchange routing
information about:
 The networks that are contained within each AS
 The AS’s that can be reached through each AS
 EGP path selection guided by policy rather than
path optimality
 Trust, peering arrangements, etc
 EGP Example
Only EGP
routers are
shown R2 R3
N1 reachable
AS2 through AS3

R1 R4
N1
AS1 AS3

• R4 advertises that network N1 can be reached through AS3

• R3 examines announcement & applies policy to decide whether it will forward packets to N1 through
R4
• If yes, routing table updated in R3 to indicate R4 as next hop to N1
• IGP propagates N1 reachability information through AS2
 EGP Example

R2 R3
N1 reachable
through AS2 AS2

R1 R4
N1
AS1 AS3

• EGP routers within an AS, e.g. R3 and R2, are kept consistent
• Suppose AS2 willing to handle transit packets from AS1 to N1
• R2 advertises to AS1 the reachability of N1 through AS2
• R1 applies its policy to decide whether to send to N1 via AS2
 Peering and Inter-AS connectivity

Peering Centre

Tier 1 ISP (Transit AS) Tier 1 ISP (Transit AS)

AS
Tier 2 (transit AS)
Tier 2 (transit AS) Content or Application
Service Provider (Non- Tier 2 (transit AS)
AS AS transit)
AS AS AS AS
• Non-transit AS’s (stub & multihomed) do not carry transit traffic
• Tier 1 ISPs peer with each other, privately & peering centers
• Tier 2 ISPs peer with each other & obtain transit services from Tier 1s; Tier 1’s carry transit traffic
between their Tier 2 customers
• Client AS’s obtain service from Tier 2 ISPs
EGP Requirements
 Scalability to global Internet
 Provide connectivity at global scale
 Link-state does not scale
 Should promote address aggregation
 Fully distributed
 EGP path selection guided by policy rather
than path optimality
 Trust, peering arrangements, etc
 EGP should allow flexibility in choice of paths
 Border Gateway Protocol v4
AS2
AS1 AS6

AS3 AS5

AS4 AS7
 BGP (RFC 1771) an EGP routing protocol to exchange network
reachability information among BGP routers (also called BGP speakers)
 Network reachability info contains sequence of ASs that packets traverse
to reach a destination network
 Info exchanged between BGP speakers allows a router to construct a
graph of AS connectivity
 Routing loops can be pruned
 Routing policy at AS level can be applied
BGP Features
 BGP is path vector protocol: advertises
sequence of AS numbers to the destination
network
 Path vector info used to prevent routing loops
 BGP enforces policy through selection of
different paths to a destination and by control
of redistribution of routing information
 Uses CIDR to support aggregation &
reduction of routing information
BGP Speaker & AS Relationship
 BGP speaker: a router running BGP
 Peers or neighbors: two speakers exchanging information
on a connection
 BGP peers use TCP (port 179) to exchange messages
 Initially, BGP peers exchange entire BGP routing table
 Incremental updates sent subsequently

 Reduces bandwidth usage and processing overhead

 Keepalive messages sent periodically (30 seconds)

 Internal BGP (iBPG) between BGP routers in same AS

 External BGP (eBGP) connections across AS borders
iBGP & eBGP

R eBGP iBGP eBGP R

R R
iBGP
iBGP iBGP iBGP

R R R
iBGP eBGP
R eBGP

 eBGP to exchange reachability information in different AS’s

 eBGP peers directly connected
 iBGP to ensure net reachability info is consistent among the BGP
speakers in the same AS
 usually not directly connected
 iBGP speakers exchange info learned from other iBGP speakers, and
thus fully meshed
Path Selection
 Each BGP speaker
 Evaluates paths to a destination from an AS
border router
 Selects the best that complies with policies
 Advertises that route to all BGP neighbors
 BGP assigns a preference order to each path &
selects path with highest value; BGP does not keep
a cost metric to any path
 When multiple paths to a destination exist, BGP
maintains all of the paths, but only advertises the
one with highest preference value
BGP Policy
 Examples of policy:
 Never use AS X
 Never use AS X to get to a destination in AS Y
 Never use AS X and AS Y in the same path
 Import policies to accept, deny, or set
preferences on route advertisements from
neighbors
 Export policies to determine which routes
should be advertised to which neighbors
 A route is advertised only if AS is willing to carry
traffic on that route
 (Ex) Typical BGP Policies
 Typical policies involve political, security, or
economic considerations.
 No transit traffic through certain ASes.
 Never put Iraq on a route starting at the Pentagon.
 Do not use the United States to get from British
Columbia to Ontario.
 Only transit Albania if there is not alternative to the
destination.
 Traffic starting or ending at IBM should not transit
Microsoft.
BGP Protocol
 Opening & confirming of a BGP connection
with a neighbor router
 Maintaining the BGP connection
 Sending reachability information
 Notification of error conditions
 Lecture 6
Communication
Networks and Services
DHCP, NAT, and Mobile IP
DHCP
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (RFC 2131)
 BOOTP (RFC 951, 1542) allows a diskless
workstation to be remotely booted up in a network
 UDP port 67 (server) & port 68 (client)
 DHCP builds on BOOTP to allow servers to deliver
configuration information to a host
 Used extensively to assign temporary IP addresses to hosts
 Allows ISP to maximize usage of their limited IP addresses
DHCP Operation
 Host broadcasts DHCP Discover message on its physical
network
 Server replies with Offer message (IP address + configuration
information)
 Host selects one offer and broadcasts DHCP Request message
 Server allocates IP address for lease time T
 Sends DHCP ACK message with T, and threshold times T1 (=1/2
T) and T2 (=.875T)
 At T1, host attempts to renew lease by sending DHCP Request
message to original server
 If no reply by T2, host broadcasts DHCP Request to any server
 If no reply by T, host must relinquish IP address and start from
the beginning
Network Address Translation
(NAT)
 Class A, B, and C addresses have been set aside for
use within private internets
 Packets with private (“unregistered”) addresses are
discarded by routers in the global Internet
 NAT (RFC 1631): method for mapping packets from
hosts in private internets into packets that can
traverse the Internet
 A device (computer, router, firewall) acts as an agent
between a private network and a public network
 A number of hosts can share a limited number of registered
IP addresses
 Static/Dynamic NAT: map unregistered addresses to
registered addresses
 Overloading: maps multiple unregistered addresses into a
single registered address (e.g. Home LAN)
NAT Operation (Overloading)
Address Translation Table:
192.168.0.10; x 128.100.10.15; y
192.168.0.13; w 128.100.10.15; z

192.168.0.10;x
128.100.10.15;y
Private Network
NAT Public Network
192.168.0.13;w
Device
128.100.10.15; z

 Hosts inside private networks generate packets with private IP

address & TCP/UDP port #s
 NAT maps each private IP address & port # into shared global IP
address & available port #
 Translation table allows packets to be routed unambiguously
Review:
Routable and Nonroutable Addresses
 Nonroutable Address [RFC 1918]
 Internet Router ignore the following addresses.
 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
 Millions of networks can exist with the same
nonroutable address.
 “Intranet” : Internal Internet
 NAT (Network Address Translation) router
 Side benefit : “Security”
Mobile IP
 Proliferation of mobile devices: PDAs, laptops,
cellphones, …
 As user moves, point-of-attachment to network
necessarily changes
 Problem: IP address specifies point-of-attachment
to Internet
 Changing IP address involves terminating all connections &
sessions
 Mobile IP (RFC 2002): device can change point-of-
attachment while retaining IP address and
maintaining communications
 Routing in Mobile IP Foreign
network
Mobile
Home host #1 Foreign
network agent Mobile
host #2

Home
Care-Of-Address
agent
Internet

 Home Agent (HA) keeps track of location of each Mobile Host (MH) in its
network; HA periodically announces its presence
 If an MH is in home network, e.g. MH#1, HA forwards packets directly to MH
 When an MH moves to a Foreign network, e.g. MH#2, MH obtains a care-of-
address from foreign agent (FA) and registers this new address with its HA
 Routing in Mobile IP Foreign
network

Home Foreign
network agent Mobile
host

2
Home
agent
Internet
3

Correspondent
host

 Correspondent Host (CH) sends packets as usual (1)

 Packets are intercepted by HA which then forwards to Foreign Agent (FA) (2)
 FA forwards packets to the MH
 MH sends packet to CH as usual (3)
 How does HA send packets to MH in foreign network?
IP-to-IP Encapsulation
Outer IP header

IP header IP header

IP payload IP payload

 HA uses IP-to-IP encapsulation

 IP packet has MH IP address
 Outer IP header has HA’s address as source
address and care-of-address as destination address
 FA recovers IP packet and delivers to MH
 Route Optimization Foreign
network

Home Foreign
network agent Mobile
host

2a
Home
agent
Internet 3 4
1
2b

Correspondent
host
 Going to HA inefficient if CH and MH are in same foreign network
 When HA receives pkt from CH (1), it tunnels using care-of-
address (2a); HA also sends care-of-address to CH (2b)
 CH can then send packets directly to care-of-address (4)