Lecture 11
Design Rules (Chapter 7)
design rules
Designing for maximum usability
– the goal of interaction design
Principles of usability
general understanding
Standards and guidelines
direction for design
Design patterns
capture and reuse design knowledge
Design Rules
We require design rules, which are rules a
designer can follow in order to increase
the usability of the eventual software
product.
Design Rules
We can classify these rules along two dimensions,
based on the rule’s
authority and
generality.
By authority, we mean an indication of whether or
not the rule must be followed in
design or whether it is only suggested
Design Rules
By generality, we mean whether the rule
can be applied to many design situations
or whether it is focused on a more limited
application situation.
Design Rules
Rules also vary in their level of abstraction, with
some abstracting away from the detail of the
design solution and others being quite specific.
It is also important to determine the origins of a
design rule.
Types of design rules
principles
abstract design rules
low authority
high generality
increasing generality
standards Guidelines
increasing generality
specific design rules
high authority
limited application
Standards
guidelines
lower authority
more general application increasing authority
increasing authority
Design Rules
The design rules are used to apply the
theory in practice.
The theory underlying the separate design
rules can help the designer understand the
trade-off for the design that would result in
following or ignoring some of the rules.
Principles, Standards and Guidelines
There exists distinction between
principles, standards and guidelines.
Principles are derived from knowledge of the
psychological, computational and sociological
aspects of the problem domains and are
largely independent of the technology.
They depend to a much greater extent on a
deeper understanding of the human element
in the interaction.
Principles, Standards and Guidelines
Guidelines are less abstract and often more
technology oriented.
As they are also general, it is important for a designer to know
what theoretical evidence there is to support them.
A designer will have less of a need to know the
underlying theory for applying a standard.
However, since standards carry a much higher
level of authority, it is more important that the
theory underlying them be correct or sound.
Principles to support usability
Learnability
the ease with which new users can begin effective interaction and
achieve maximal performance
Flexibility
the multiplicity of ways the user and system exchange information
Robustness
the level of support provided the user in determining successful
achievement and assessment of goal-directed behaviour
Principles to support usability
Learnability: the ease with which new
users can begin effective interaction and
achieve maximal performance
Principles to support usability
Flexibility: the multiplicity of ways the
user and system exchange information
Principles to support usability
Robustness: the level of support
provided the user in determining
successful achievement and assessment
of goal-directed behavior.
Principles of learnability
Familiarity
how prior knowledge applies to new system
guess-ability; metaphors; affordance
Principles of learn-ability
Generalizability
extending specific interaction knowledge to
new situations
eg. cut/paste/copy across apps
Principles of learn-ability
Consistency
likeness
in input/output behavior arising
from similar situations or task objectives
Predictability
Predictability of an interactive system
means that the user’s knowledge of the
interaction history is sufficient to determine
the result of his future interaction with it.
There are many degrees to which
predictability can be satisfied.
Predictability and deterministic behavior
Predictability of an interactive system is distinguished from
deterministic behavior of the computer system alone.
Most computer systems are ultimately deterministic machines,
so that given the state at any one point in time and the operation
which is to be performed at that time, there is only one possible
state that can
result.
Synthesizability
Predictability says nothing about the way the
user forms a model of the system’s behavior.
Synthesis, is the ability of the user to assess
the effect of past operations on the current
state.
can observe account of a change
eg. moving a file in command-line vs WIMP interface
Flexibility
Flexibility refers to the multiplicity of ways
in which the end-user and the system
exchange information.
Principles of flexibility
Dialogue initiative
freedom from system imposed constraints on input dialogue
system vs. user pre-emptiveness
Multithreading
ability of system to support user interaction for more than one task
at a time
concurrent vs. interleaving; multimodality
Task migratability
passing responsibility for task execution between user and system
Principles of flexibility (ctd)
Substitutivity
allowing equivalent values of input and output
to be substituted for each other
representation multiplicity; equal opportunity
Customizability
modifiabilityof the user interface by user
(adaptability) or system (adaptivity)
Robustness
In a work or task domain, a user is
engaged with a computer in order to
achieve some set of goals.
The robustness of that interaction covers
features that support the successful
achievement and assessment of the goals.
Principles of robustness
Observability
ability of user to evaluate the internal state of the system from its
perceivable representation
browsability; defaults; reachability; persistence; operation visibility
Recoverability
ability of user to take corrective action once an error has been
recognized
reachability; forward/backward recovery; commensurate effort
Principles of robustness (ctd)
Responsiveness
how the user perceives the rate of
communication with the system
Stability
Task conformance
degree to which system services support all of
the user's tasks
task completeness; task adequacy
Using design rules
increasing generality
Guidelines
increasing generality
Design rules
suggest how to increase usability
Standards
differ in generality and authority
increasing authority
increasing authority
Standards
set by national or international bodies to ensure
compliance by a large community of designers standards
require sound underlying theory and slowly changing
technology.
hardware standards more common than software high
authority and low level of detail.
ISO 9241 defines usability as effectiveness, efficiency
and satisfaction with which users accomplish tasks.
Underlying theory –hardware Standards
Standards for hardware are based on an
understanding of physiology or
ergonomics/human factors, the results of
which are relatively well known, fixed and
readily adaptable to design of the hardware.
Underlying theory –software Standards
Software standards are based on theories
from psychology or cognitive science,
which are less well formed, still evolving
and not very easy to interpret in the
language of software design.
Change
Hardware is more difficult and expensive to change
than software, which is usually designed to be very
flexible.
Consequently, requirements changes for
hardware do not occur as frequently as for software.
Since standards are also relatively stable, they are more
suitable for hardware than software.
ISO 9241
One component of the ISO standard 9241, pertaining to usability
specification, applies equally to both hardware and software
design.
Usability: The effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction with which
specified users
achieve specified goals in particular environments.
ISO 9241
Effectiveness: The accuracy and completeness with which
specified users can achieve specified goals in particular
environments.
Efficiency: The resources expended in relation to the accuracy and
completeness of goals achieved.
ISO 9241
Satisfaction: The comfort and
acceptability of the work system to its
users and other people affected by its use.
Strength of Standards
Lies in ability to force large communities to abide
(so-called authority)
Most standards are suggestions
Some practices become de facto standards before
formalization
Guidelines
more suggestive and general
many textbooks and reports full of guidelines
abstract guidelines (principles) applicable during early
life cycle activities
detailed guidelines (style guides) applicable during later
life cycle activities
understanding justification for guidelines aids in resolving
conflicts
Guidelines for Interactive
Design
…or interface design
Smith and Mosier (Mitre) 6 basic categories
data entry, data display, sequence control, user guidance,
data transmission, data protection
broken into more specific subcategories
Example:
Data Entry
position designation
distinctive cursor – movable, visual feature (shape, blink,
etc.)
:
See also 1.1-17 Distinctive multiple cursors
allows cross-referencing
Guidelines for Interactive
Design
Mayhew
morerecent, comprehensive, general
guidelines in a catalog
Guidelines
Dialog styles
question and answer, form-filling, menu
selection, function keys, command language,
query, natural language, direct manipulation
Most guidelines applicable for implementation
of any one of dialog styles in isolation
Must also consider mixing of styles in an
application (Mayhew provides guidelines on
this)
Specific Guidelines
Apple’s HCI Guidelines: the Apple
Desktop Interface
Abstract principle in Apple
guidelines is consistency
Effectiveapplications are both
consistent within themselves and
consistent with one another.
More concrete guideline
‘noun-verb’ ordering – user selects an
object on desktop, then the operation
Dialog Initiative
Under general usability category of
flexibility principle
The user, not the computer, initiates and
controls all actions
Involves a trade-off
user freedom vs system protection
GUI Systems
Guidelines on how to adhere to abstract
principles for usability in programming
environment
Style guides
OpenLook
Open Software Foundation Motif GUI
involve using toolkits with high-level widgets
each have own look-and-feel
promote consistency
OpenLook example
For design of menus
Suggestion for grouping items in the same
menu
“Use white space between long groups of
controls on menus or in short groups when
screen real estate is not an issue.”
Justification: more options on a menu, longer it
takes user to locate and point to item
Careful: grouping logically related items like
saving and deleting files may result in a simple
slip in pointing
Golden Rules
Commitment can help designer to develop
more usable system.
For this purpose, number of advocates of
user-centered design have presented sets
of ‘golden rules’ or heuristics.
Golden rules and heuristics
“Broad brush” design rules
Useful check list for good design
Better design using these than using nothing!
Different collections e.g.
Nielsen’s 10 Heuristics (covered in coming
lectures)
Shneiderman’s 8 Golden Rules
Norman’s 7 Principles
Shneiderman’s 8 Golden Rules
1. Strive for consistency
2. Enable frequent users to use shortcuts
3. Offer informative feedback
4. Design dialogs to yield closure
5. Offer error prevention and simple error handling
6. Permit easy reversal of actions
7. Support internal locus of control
8. Reduce short-term memory load
Norman’s 7 Principles
1. Use both knowledge in the world and knowledge in the
head.
2. Simplify the structure of tasks.
3. Make things visible: bridge the gulfs of Execution and
Evaluation.
4. Get the mappings right.
5. Exploit the power of constraints, both natural and
artificial.
6. Design for error.
7. When all else fails, standardize.
HCI design patterns
An approach to reusing knowledge about successful
design solutions
Originated in architecture: Alexander
A pattern is an invariant solution to a recurrent problem
within a specific context.
Examples
Light on Two Sides of Every Room (architecture)
Go back to a safe place (HCI)
Patterns do not exist in isolation but are linked to other
patterns in languages which enable complete designs to
be generated
HCI design patterns (cont.)
Characteristics of patterns
capture design practice not theory
capture the essential common properties of good examples of
design
represent design knowledge at varying levels: social,
organisational, conceptual, detailed
embody values and can express what is humane in interface design
are intuitive and readable and can therefore be used for
communication between all stakeholders
a pattern language should be generative and assist in the
development of complete designs.
Summary
Principles for usability
repeatable design for usability relies on maximizing benefit of
one good design by abstracting out the general properties which
can direct purposeful design
The success of designing for usability requires both creative
insight (new paradigms) and purposeful principled practice
Using design rules
standards and guidelines to direct design activity
