OPERATING SYSTEM

Recommended Books
2

 Operating System
 William Stalling
 Operating System Concepts
 Abraham Silberschatz
 Contents
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 Introduction to Operating System

 Operating System Structures
 Processes
 Threads
 CPU Scheduling
 Deadlocks
 Main Memory
 Virtual Memory
 File System
 Virtual Memory
 Introduction
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 What is an Operating System?

 Have you ever used one?
 Why is it important?
 Who uses an Operating System?
 What is an Operating System
5

 An operating system (OS) is software that acts as an

intermediary between computer hardware and the computer
user.
 It provides a set of services and functionalities that enable the
hardware components to communicate with the software and
vice versa.

 The primary goals of an operating system include:

 Process Management: The OS oversees the execution of processes,
which are programs in execution. It manages tasks such as process
scheduling, creation, and termination.
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 Memory Management: The OS is responsible for managing the

computer's memory, ensuring that processes have the necessary space to
run and that memory is allocated and deallocated as needed.

 File System Management: Operating systems provide a file system to

organize and store data. This includes managing files, directories, and
storage devices.

 Device Management: The OS interacts with and manages various

hardware devices, such as printers, disk drives, and input/output devices,
facilitating communication between software and hardware components.
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 Security and Protection: Operating systems implement security measures

to protect the system and its data. This includes user authentication, access
control, and data encryption.

 User Interface: Many operating systems provide a user interface, which

can be command-line based or graphical, allowing users to interact with
the computer system.

 Networking: Operating systems support networking capabilities, allowing

computers to communicate with each other over networks. This includes
managing network connections, protocols, and configurations.
 Popular Operating Systems
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 Microsoft Windows,
 macOS,
 Linux,
 Unix.
 Each type of operating system has its strengths and
is designed for specific use cases, ranging from
personal computers to servers and embedded
systems.
 What is an Operating System
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 OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and
fair resource use
 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer
 What is an Operating System
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 No universally accepted definition.

 “Everything a vendor ships when you order an
operating system” is good approximation
 But varies wildly
 “The one program running at all times on the
computer” is the kernel. Everything else is either a
system program (ships with the operating system)
or an application program.
 Kernel
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 The term "kernel" in the context of an operating

system refers to the core component that serves as
the central part of the operating system.

 It is the essential part that manages the system's

resources and provides a bridge between the
computer hardware and the applications running on
it.
 What is an Operating System
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 A program that acts as an intermediary between a

user of a computer and the computer hardware
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
 Computer System Structure
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 Components of Computer System
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 Computer Startup
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 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or

reboot
 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
 Computer System Organization
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 Computer-system operation:
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through
common bus providing access to shared memory.
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles.
 Computer-System Operation
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 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.

 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type.
 Each device controller has a local buffer.
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers.
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation
by causing an interrupt.
 Common Functions of Interrupts
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 Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines.
 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted
instruction.
 Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being
processed to prevent a lost interrupt.
 A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error
or a user request.
 An operating system is interrupt driven.
 Interrupt Handling
19

 The operating system preserves the state of the

CPU by storing registers and the program counter.
 Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
 polling
 vectored interrupt system
 Separate segments of code determine what action
should be taken for each type of interrupt.
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 How is the string displayed on the screen?

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 Operating System Services
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 An operating system provides an environment for

the execution of programs.
 It makes certain services available to programs and
to the users of those programs.

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 Operating System Services
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 User interface - Almost all operating systems have

a user interface (UI)
 Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User
Interface (GUI), Batch
 Program execution - The system must be able to
load a program into memory and to run that
program, end execution, either normally or
abnormally (indicating error)
 Operating System Services
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 I/O operations - A running program may require I/O,

which may involve a file or an I/O device
 File-system manipulation - The file system is of
particular interest.
 Programs need to read and write files and directories, create
and delete them, search them, list file Information,
permission management.
 Operating System Services
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 Communications – Processes may exchange information, on

the same computer or between computers over a network
 Communications may be via shared memory or through message
passing (packets moved by the OS)
 Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible
errors
 May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user
program
 For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to
ensure correct and consistent computing
 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and
programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system
 Operating System Services(for iteself)
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 A set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient

operation of the system itself via resource sharing
 Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple

jobs running concurrently, resources must be allocated

to each of them
 Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main
memory, and file storage) may have special allocation code,
others (such as I/O devices) may have general request and
release code
 Accounting - To keep track of which users use how
much and what kinds of computer resources
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 Protection and security - The owners of information stored

in a multiuser or networked computer system may want to
control use of that information, concurrent processes should
not interfere with each other

 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is

controlled
 Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication,
extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access
attempts
 If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be
instituted throughout it. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.
 User and OS Interface
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 There are several ways for users to interface with

the operating system
 Command Interpreter
 Graphical User Interface
 Touch Screen Interface
 User and OS Interface
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 A command interpreter, often referred to as a shell

in Unix-like systems or the Command
Prompt/PowerShell in Windows, is a program that
acts as an interface between the user and the
operating system.
 Its primary role is to interpret and execute
commands entered by the user.
 User and OS Interface
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 User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

 Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
 Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
 Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various
actions (provide information, options, execute function, open
directory (known as a folder)
 Invented at Xerox PARC
 Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
 Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
 Apple Mac OS X as “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel
underneath and shells available
 Solaris is CLI with optional GUI interfaces (Java Desktop, KDE)
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 User and OS Interface
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 Touch Screen Interfae- Because a either a

command-line interface or a mouse-and-keyboard
system is impractical for most mobile systems,
smartphones and handheld tablet computers
typically use a touch-screen interface. Here, users
interact by making gestures on the touch screen
 System Calls
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 A system call is a programming interface provided by the

operating system that allows user-level processes or programs
to request services from the kernel or the core of the operating
system.
 System calls provide a way for applications to interact with
the underlying hardware and access essential operating system
functionalities in a controlled and secure manner.
 System Calls
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 key details about system calls:

 Process Control: Creation, termination, and communication between
processes.
 File Management: File manipulation, such as open, close, read, and
write operations.
 Device Management: Control and communication with hardware
devices.
 Information Maintenance: Gathering system information, such as
time, date, and system configuration.
 Communication: Interprocess communication and networking
operations.
 System Calls
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 Types of System Calls:

 Process Control System Calls:
 fork(): Create a new process.
 exit(): Terminate the calling process.
 wait(): Wait for the child process to exit.
 System Calls
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 File Management System Calls:

 open(): Open a file.
 read(): Read data from a file.
 write(): Write data to a file.
 close(): Close a file.
 System Calls
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 Device Management System Calls:

 ioctl(): Input/output control for devices.
 read(), write(): Used for communication with devices.
 Information Maintenance System Calls:
 time(), date(): Get system time and date.
 getpid(): Get process ID.
 getuid(): Get user ID.
 System Calls
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 Communication System Calls:

 socket(): Create a new communication endpoint.
 send(), recv(): Send and receive messages over a
network.
 System Calls
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 Protection System Calls:

 get file permissions
 set file permissions
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 User Mode and Kernel Mode
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 System Calls
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 Execution of System Calls:

 When a user-level program makes a system call, it
triggers a software interrupt or trap.
 The CPU switches from user mode to kernel mode to
give the operating system control.
 The kernel executes the requested system call on
behalf of the user-level process.
 After completion, control is returned to the user-level
process.
 What goes into an OS
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 OS Structure(Monolithic Structure)
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 Types of Operating Systems
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 Single-User vs. Multi-User

 Single-Tasking vs. Multi-Tasking
 Batch Processing vs. Time-Sharing
 Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)
 Types of Operating Systems
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 Operating systems can be categorized into various

types based on their characteristics, functionality,
and intended use.
 common types of operating systems:
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 Single-User, Single-Tasking Operating Systems:

 Designed to support only one user and one task at a
time.
 Examples: MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating
System), early versions of Apple DOS.
 Single-User, Multi-Tasking Operating Systems:
 Supports a single user but allows the concurrent
execution of multiple tasks.
 Examples: Microsoft Windows (desktop versions),
macOS.
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 Multi-User Operating Systems:

 Supports multiple users concurrently.
 Allows multiple users to access the system simultaneously,
each with their processes and tasks.
 Examples: UNIX, Linux, mainframe operating systems.
 Batch Processing Operating Systems:
 Designed for executing a sequence of jobs or tasks without
user interaction.
 Users submit jobs, and the system processes them in batches.
 Common in business and scientific environments.
 Examples: IBM OS/360, VMS (Virtual Memory System).
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 Time-Sharing or Multi-User/Multi-Tasking
Operating Systems:
 Enables multiple users to interact with the system
concurrently.
 Time is shared among users, and each user gets a small
time slice for their task.
 Provides the illusion of simultaneous execution.
 Examples: UNIX, Linux, modern versions of
Microsoft Windows.
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 Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS):

 Designed for systems that require immediate response to
external events.
 Common in embedded systems, control systems, and
applications with strict timing requirements.
 Examples: VxWorks, QNX, FreeRTOS.
 VxWorks is often used in embedded systems, industrial automation, and
aerospace applications.
 It ensures that tasks are executed within predetermined time constraints,
making it suitable for systems where timing precision is critical.
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 Network Operating Systems:

 Specifically designed to support networked computing.
 Facilitates communication and resource sharing among multiple
computers on a network.
 Examples: Novell NetWare, Windows Server, Linux server
editions.
 Distributed Operating Systems:
 Extends the capabilities of network operating systems to support
distributed computing.
 Distributes computing tasks across multiple interconnected
computers.
 Examples: Google's Chrome OS, Amoeba.
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 Mobile Operating Systems:

 Designed for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.
 Emphasizes power management, touch input, and support for
mobile apps.
 Examples: Android, iOS, HarmonyOS.
 Embedded Operating Systems:
 Tailored for use in embedded systems with specific functions
or dedicated applications.
 Found in devices like routers, medical equipment, and
consumer electronics.
 Examples: VxWorks (in some routers), Embedded Linux.
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OPERATING SYSTEM

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Lecture#13-14
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How OS Manages the

System Resources?
 Resource management
83

 Resource Sharing
 CPU
 Memory
 Printer
 Files
 etc
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 The most important application of the os is for

resource management
 OS is incharge of managing these resources in an
efficient manner
 Among all the resources that are present in the
system like (memory, CPU, keyboard)CPU is the
critical resource
 Sharing the CPU
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 Sharing the CPU
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Who decides which

application should run
on the CPU ?
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 Other Shared Resources
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 Printer
 Keyboard
 Ram
 Disk
 Files on Disk
 Networks
 Multiprocessors
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 Multiple processor chips in a single system

 Multiple cores in a single chip
 Multiple threads in a single core
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 Race Conditions
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 Synchronization
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 Who should execute next?
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 Scheduling
 Algorithm that executes to determines which app
should execute next
 Need to be fair
 Needs to able to prioritize some Apps over the other
 Memory Management
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 Executing Programs(Process)
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 Executing Programs(Process)
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 Sharing RAM
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 Single Contiguous Model
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 No Sharing
 One process occupies RAM at a time
 When one process completes, another process is allocated
RAM
 Drawback
 Process memory size is restricted b RAM
 Single Contiguous Model
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 No Sharing
 One process occupies RAM at a time
 When one process completes, another process is allocated
RAM
 Drawback
 Process memory size is restricted b RAM
 Single Contiguous Model
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 No Sharing
 One process occupies RAM at a time
 When one process completes, another process is allocated
RAM
 Drawback
 Process memory size is restricted b RAM
 Single Contiguous Model
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 No Sharing
 One process occupies RAM at a time
 When one process completes, another process is allocated
RAM
 Drawback
 Process memory size is restricted b RAM
 Partition Model
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 Partition Model
(allocating and deallocating processes)
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 Partition Model
(allocating and deallocating processes)
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 Partition Model (fragmentation)
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 Partition Model
(finding the right fit)
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Free space

New process Free space

Free space
 Partition Model
(finding the right fit)
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Free space

New process Free space

Free space
 Partition Model
(finding the right fit)
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Free space

New process Free space

Free space
 Partition Model
(finding the right fit)
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Free space

New process Free space

Free space
 Partition Model (Deallocation)
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Free space

New process Free space

Free space
 Partition Model (Deallocation)
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Free space
OS should detect where are three contiguous free blocks
to merge to make a one complete free block
New process Free space

Free space
 Limitations
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 116

OPERATING SYSTEM

VIRTUAL MEMORY

Lecture#13-14
 Virtual Memory
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 Virtual Memory
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 RAM is split into fixed size

partitions called page frames

 Page frames typically = 4KBs

 Note: in newer processors page size might
be of different size.
 Virtual Memory
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 Process splits into the blocks of

equal size
 block size = page frame size
 Virtual Memory
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 Process splits into the blocks of equal

size
 block size = page frame size

per process page table(stored in RAM)

 Virtual Memory
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 Virtual Memory
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 Virtual Memory
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 Virtual Memory
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 Virtual Memory
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 Virtual Memory
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 Virtual Memory
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 Virtual Memory
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 Virtual Memory
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 Virtual Memory
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 Virtual Memory
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 Virtual Memory
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 Introduction to Process
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 Early computers allowed only one program to be

executed at a time.
 This program had complete control of the system
and had access to all the system’s resources.
 In contrast, contemporary computer systems allow
multiple programs to be loaded into memory and
executed concurrently.
 Introduction to Process
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 A process, which is a program in execution.

 A process is the unit of work in a modern

computing system.

 The status of the current activity of a process is

represented by the value of the program counter
and the contents of the processor’s registers.
 The memory layout of a process
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 Process state
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 As a process executes, it changes state

 new: The process is being created
 running: Instructions are being executed
 waiting: The process is waiting for some event to
occur
 ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a
processor
 terminated: The process has finished execution
 Introduction to Process
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 Process Control Block (PCB)
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 Each process is represented in the operating system

by a process control block (PCB)
 It contains many pieces of information associated
with a specific process, including these:
 Process state: The state may be new, ready, running,
waiting, halted, and so on.
 Program counter: The counter indicates the address
of the next instruction to be executed for this process.
 Process Control Block (PCB)
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 CPU Registers: They include accumulators, index

registers, stack pointers, and general-purpose
registers
 CPU-scheduling information: This information
includes a process priority, pointers to scheduling
queues
 Memory-management information
 Accounting information
 I/O status information.
 Process Control Block (PCB)
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Information associated with each process

 Process state
 Program counter
 CPU registers
 CPU scheduling information
 Memory-management information
 Accounting information
 I/O status information
 Threads
142

 A thread is light weight process.

 The process model discussed so far has implied
that a process is a program that performs a single
thread of execution
 For example, when a process is running a word-
processor program, a single thread of instructions is
being executed.
 This single thread of control allows the process to
perform only one task at a time.
 Example
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 Virtual Address map of Process
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 Virtual Address map of Process
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Where Does the kernel

resides in the memory
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 Kernel Data about a Process
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 Kernel Data about a Process
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 The objective of multiprogramming is to have

some process running at all times so as to
maximize CPU utilization.
 The objective of time sharing is to switch a CPU
core among processes so frequently that users can
interact with each program while it is running.
153

 To meet these objectives, the process scheduler

selects an available process (possibly from a set of
several available processes) for program execution
on a core.
 Each CPU core can run one process at a time.
154

 For a system with a single CPU core, there will

never be more than one process running at a time
 Whereas a multicore system can run multiple
processes at one time.
 If there are more processes than cores, excess
processes will have to wait until a core is free and
can be rescheduled.
 Process Scheduling
155

 Process scheduling queues play a crucial role in the

operating system's task of managing and executing
processes efficiently.
 These queues are data structures used to organize
and prioritize processes waiting to be executed by
the CPU.
 The scheduling algorithm determines how
processes are selected from these queues for
execution.
 Process Scheduling Queue
156

 The common types of process scheduling queues:

 Job Queue:
 This queue holds all the processes in the system,
whether they are in main memory or secondary
storage.
 Processes in this queue are waiting to be brought into
main memory for execution.
 Process Scheduling Queue
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 Ready Queue:
 Processes that are residing in main memory and are
ready to execute are placed in the ready queue.
 The CPU scheduler selects processes from this queue
for execution based on the scheduling algorithm.
 Process Scheduling Queue
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 Device Queue:
 Processes waiting for a particular I/O device or
resource are placed in device queues.
 These queues are associated with specific I/O devices
such as printers, disk drives, etc.
 Once the I/O operation is complete, the process is
moved back to the ready queue.
 Process Scheduling Queue
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 Waiting Queue:
 Processes that are waiting for a particular event to
occur (other than I/O) are placed in the waiting queue.
 For example, a process waiting for a signal or a
message.
 Process Scheduling
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 Suspended Queue:
 Processes that are temporarily taken out of main
memory and placed in secondary storage due to low
priority or resource limitations are in the suspended
queue.
 They may be brought back to the ready queue later
when the system resources become available.
 Queueing-diagram representation of process
scheduling
161
Schedulers
 Short-term scheduler is invoked very frequently
(milliseconds)  (must be fast)
 Long-term scheduler is invoked very infrequently (seconds,
minutes)  (may be slow)
 The long-term scheduler controls the degree of
multiprogramming
 Processes can be described as either:
 I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than
computations, many short CPU bursts
 CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations;
few very long CPU bursts
Addition of Medium Term Scheduling
Context Switch
 When CPU switches to another process, the system
must save the state of the old process and load the
saved state for the new process via a context switch
 Context of a process represented in the PCB
 Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no
useful work while switching
 Time dependent on hardware support
 Operations on Processes
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 Process Creation
 Process Termination
Process Creation
 Parent process create children processes, which,
in turn create other processes, forming a tree of
processes
 Generally, process identified and managed via a
process identifier (pid)
 Resource sharing
 Parent and children share all resources
 Children share subset of parent’s resources
 Parent and child share no resources
Process Creation (Cont.)
 Address space
 Child duplicate of parent
 Child has a program loaded into it
 UNIX examples
 fork system call creates new process
 exec system call used after a fork to replace the
process’ memory space with a new program
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What is address space?

 What Does Address Space Mean?
169

 An address space is a range of valid addresses in

memory that are available for a program or process.
 It is the memory that a program or process can
access.
 The memory can be either physical or virtual and is
used for executing instructions and storing data.
 A tree of processes on a typical Solaris

responsible for
responsible for managing clients that managing clients
directly log onto the system. that connect to the
system by using ssh
Process Creation
 When a process creates a new process, two
possibilities for execution exist:
 Parent and children execute concurrently
 Parent waits until children terminate
Process Creation
 There are also two address-space possibilities for
the new process:
 The child process is a duplicate of the parent process (it
has the same program and data as the parent).
 The child process has a new program loaded into it
 Creating a process by Cloning
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 Cloning
 Child process is exact replica of the parent
 Fork system call
 Creating a process by Cloning
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 Cloning
 Child process is exact replica of the parent
 Fork system call
 Creating a process by Cloning
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 Creating a process by Cloning
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 Fork system call from OS perspective
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 Fork system call from OS perspective
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 Fork system call from OS perspective
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 Fork system call from OS perspective
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 Child Process in Ready Queue
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 Copying Page Table
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 Copying Page Table
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 Duplicating Page Tables
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 Copying Page Table
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 Example
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 Example
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 Process Termination
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 A process terminates when it finishes executing its

final statement and asks the operating system to
delete it by using the exit() system call.
 Process Termination
189

 A process terminates when it finishes executing its

final statement and asks the operating system to
delete it by using the exit() system call.
 At that point, the process may return a status value
(typically an integer) to its parent process (via the
wait() system call).
 Process Termination
190

 All the resources of the process —including physical

and virtual memory, open files, and I/O buffers—are
deallocated and reclaimed by the operating system.
 Process Termination
191

 Termination can occur in other circumstances as

well:
 A process can cause the termination of another process via
an appropriate system call
 Process Termination
192

 Termination can occur in other circumstances as

well:
 A process can cause the termination of another process via
an appropriate system call

 Usually, such a system call can be invoked only by the

parent of the process that is to be terminated.
 Process Termination
193

 Termination can occur in other circumstances as

well:
 A process can cause the termination of another process via
an appropriate system call

 Usually, such a system call can be invoked only by the

parent of the process that is to be terminated.

 Otherwise, a user— or a misbehaving application—could

arbitrarily kill another user’s processes.
 Process Termination
194

 A parent may terminate the execution of one of its

children for a variety of reasons, such as these:
 The child has exceeded its usage of some of the resources
that it has been allocated (To determine whether this has occurred,
the parent must have a mechanism to inspect the state of its children.)
 Process Termination
195

 A parent may terminate the execution of one of its

children for a variety of reasons, such as these:
 The task assigned to the child is no longer required.

 The parent is exiting, and the operating system does not allow
a child to continue if its parent terminates
196
197
198
 Interprocess Communication
199

 Interprocess communication (IPC) is a mechanism

that allows processes in an operating system to
communicate with each other.
 This communication is essential for
 coordination,
 synchronization,
 data exchange
 Interprocess Communication
200

 Processes executing concurrently in the operating

system may be either independent processes or
cooperating processes.
 Interprocess Communication
201

 Processes executing concurrently in the operating

system may be either independent processes or
cooperating processes.

 A process is independent if it does not share data with

any other processes executing in the system.
 Interprocess Communication
202

 A process is cooperating if it can affect or be

affected by the other processes executing in the
system.
 Interprocess Communication
203

 There are several reasons for providing an

environment that allows process cooperation:
 Information Sharing
 Computational Speedup
 Modularity
 Interprocess Communication
204

 Information Sharing:
 Enable multiple applications to access and share the
same piece of information concurrently.

 Example: Consider the functionality of copying and

pasting. Multiple applications may need access to the same
clipboard data.
 To facilitate this, an environment supporting process
cooperation is required to allow concurrent access to shared
information.
 Interprocess Communication
205

 Computation Speedup:
 Achieve faster execution of a particular task by
breaking it into subtasks and executing them in
parallel.
 Multiple processing cores are necessary to achieve
parallel execution.
 Example: If a computationally intensive task can be
divided into smaller subtasks, each subtask can be
executed concurrently on separate processing cores,
resulting in a speedup of the overall computation.
 Interprocess Communication
206

 Modularity:
 Construct the system in a modular fashion by dividing
system functions into separate processes or threads.
 This promotes a more organized and maintainable
system architecture.
 Example: In a complex software system, different
modules or components may perform distinct functions.
 By implementing these functions as separate processes
or threads, the system becomes more modular, making it
easier to understand, develop, and maintain.
 Interprocess Communication
207

 There are two fundamental models of IPC

 Shared Memory
 Message Passing
 Interprocess Communication
208

 Shared Memory Model: In the shared-memory

model, a region of memory that is shared by the
cooperating processes is established.
 Processes can then exchange information by
reading and writing data to the shared region.
 Interprocess Communication
209

 Message-passing model: In the message-passing

model communication takes place by means of
messages exchanged between the cooperating
processes.

 Interprocss Communication
210
211

 The shared memory model is a method of Interprocess

Communication (IPC) where multiple processes share a
region of memory.
 This shared memory region allows these processes to
communicate and exchange data more efficiently.
 Processes can read and write to the shared memory space,
providing a fast and direct means of communication.
 How the shared memory model works:
212

 Memory Allocation:
 A section of memory is allocated by an operating system or a
controlling process. This section is designated for sharing among
multiple processes.
 Attaching Processes:
 Processes that want to communicate with each other attach themselves
to the shared memory region. This attachment is typically done using
system calls or library functions provided by the operating system.
 Data Exchange:
 Processes can now read from and write to the shared memory region.
Any changes made by one process in the shared memory space are
immediately visible to other processes attached to the same region.
213

 Synchronization:
 Since multiple processes can access the shared
memory simultaneously, synchronization mechanisms
used to prevent conflicts and ensure data consistency.
 Detachment and Cleanup:
 When processes are done with the shared memory,
they can detach from it.
 Advantages of Shared Memory Model:
214

 Speed: Shared memory provides a fast means of

communication since processes can directly read
and write to the shared space without the need for
additional message passing.

 Simplicity: The shared memory model is relatively

straightforward to implement and understand.
215

 Efficiency: It is efficient for large data transfers or

frequent communication between processes.
 Challenges of Shared Memory Model:
216

 Synchronization: Proper synchronization is

crucial to avoid race conditions and ensure data
consistency.
217

 Communication Limited to Same Machine:

 Shared memory is typically used for communication
between processes on the same machine.
 If communication is needed across networked machines,
other IPC mechanisms like sockets may be more
appropriate.
 IPC(Message Passing)
218

 Message passing provides a mechanism to allow

processes to communicate and to synchronize their
actions without sharing the same address space.

 It is particularly useful in a distributed

environment, where the communicating processes
may reside on different computers connected by a
network.
219

 For example:
 An Internet chat program could be designed so that
chat participants communicate with one another by
exchanging messages.
 220

THREADS AND CONCURRENCY

 Self Task:
221

 Suppose one person take 10 days to complete a

task. Than how many days shall be required by the
10 persons to complete the same task?
 Consider this Example
222
 Consider this Example
223
 Consider this Example
224
225
226

 Can we execute this program in all these four

processors to achieve parallelism?
227

 Speeding up with multiple processes

 Introduction to threads
228
229
 Self test:
230

 Significant Overheads: can we do better?

 Thread
231

 A Thread is a lightweight process

 Thread Model
232
 Thread Model
233
234
 Introduction to threads
235

 A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization.

 It comprises of
 A Thread ID,
 A program counter (PC),
 A register set,
 A stack.
 Introduction to threads
236

 It shares resources with other threads belonging to

the same process like
 code section
 data section
 other operating-system resources (open files)
 Introduction to threads
237

 A traditional/heavyweight process has a single

thread of control.
 If a process has multiple threads of control, it can
perform more than one task at a time
 The term "thread of control" refers to the sequence of
instructions executed by the processor.
 In a single-threaded process, only one set of instructions is
executed at any given time.
 Process and Threads
238
 Example of threads
239

 A web browser might have one thread display

images or text while another thread retrieves data
from the network.
 Example of threads
240

 A word processor may have

 a thread for displaying graphics,
 another thread for responding to keystrokes from the user,
 a third thread for performing spelling and grammar checking in the
background.
241
242

 Advantages of multithreaded programming can be

broken down into four major categories
 Responsiveness
 Resource sharing
 Economy
 Utilization of multiprocessor architectures
 Types of threads
243

 There are two primary types of threads:

 user-level threads
 kernel-level threads
 Thread management done by the user level thread library.
 Kernel knows nothing about the threads
 Kernel threads
 Threads directly supported by the kernel
 Known as light weight processes
 Types of threads
244

 There are two primary types of threads:

 user-level threads
 These threads are managed by a user-level thread library
and are not directly supported by the operating system
kernel.
 The kernel sees the entire process as a single entity with one
thread.
 User-level threads are faster to create and manage but may
not take full advantage of multiprocessor systems since they
rely on a single kernel-level thread for execution.
 Types of threads
245

 There are two primary types of threads:

 Kernel-level threads
 These threads are managed by the operating system kernel.
 The kernel is aware of each individual thread within a
process and can schedule them independently.
 Kernel-level threads tend to be slower to create and
manage, but they can take better advantage of
multiprocessor systems.
 Types of threads
246

 User-level threads offer speed and simplicity but may not

fully exploit the potential of multiprocessor systems due to the
lack of kernel-level awareness of individual threads.

 Kernel-level threads provide better control, allowing the

operating system to schedule threads independently. This
makes them more suitable for exploiting the capabilities of
multiprocessor systems but may involve slightly higher
overhead.
 User Level Threads
247
 Kernel Level Threads
248
249

 Ultimately, there must exist a relationship between

user thread and kernel thread
 Relationship b/w User & kernel thread
250

 Three common ways to establish relationship

between the threads
1. Many-to-One Model
2. One-to-One Model
3. Many-to-Many Model
 Threading Models
251

 Many-to-One threading
models
 Maps Many user level threads
to one kernel level thread

 Thread management is done by

the thread library
 Threading Models
252

 Disadvantage of Many-to-
One Model
 The entire process will block if
a thread makes a blocking
system call
 Because only one thread can
access the kernel at a time,
multiple threads are unable to
run in parallel on
multiprocessors.
 Threading Models
253

 One-to-One Model
 The one-to-one model maps
each user thread to a kernel
thread.

 It provides more concurrency

than the many-to-one model
by allowing another thread to
run when a thread makes a
blocking system call.
 Threading Models
254

 Many-to-Many Model
 Multiplexes many user level
threads to a smaller or equal
number of kernel level threads

 Number of kernel level threads

may be specific to either a
particular application or a
particular machine.
 255

THREADING ISSUES

Lecture#29-31
 Threading Issues
256

 Issues to consider while designing multithreaded

programs
 The fork() and exec() system calls
 Signal Handling
 Thread cancellation
 Thread local storage
 Scheduler activations
 Threading Issues
257

 Issues to consider while designing multithreaded

programs
 The fork(): the fork is used for creating a child process
for a parent process with a different process ID
 exec(): the exec sysetm call is used for replacing the
contents of a process with another process but
retaining the same process ID
258

 How fork() and exec() system calls will behave

when we have threading involved?
 Threading issues
259

 The semantics of the fork() and exec() system calls

change in a multithreaded program.
 Threading issues
260

 Issue
 If one thread in a process calls
fork(), does the new process
duplicate all threads, or is the new
process single- threaded?
 Threading issues
261

 Solution:
 Some UNIX systems have chosen
to have two versions of fork(),
 one that duplicates all threads
 another that duplicates only the
thread that invoked the fork()
system call.
262

Which of the version is to

choose and when?
263

 Which of the version is to choose and when?

 Note: if a thread invokes the exec() system call, the

program specified in the parameter to exec() will
replace the entire process including all threads.

If exec() is called immediately after forking

 Then duplicating all threads is unnecessary, as the
program specified in the parameters to exec()
will replace the process.

 In this instance, duplicating only the calling

thread is appropriate.
264

 Which of the version is to choose and when?

 Note: if a thread invokes the exec() system call, the

program specified in the parameter to exec() will
replace the entire process including all threads.

If the separate process doesnot call exec() system call after

forking

 Then separate process should duplicate all threads

 Thread Cancellation
265

 Thread cancellation refers to the process of

terminating the execution of a thread before it
completes its task.
 Reasons for Thread Cancellation
 Task completion
 Timeouts
 Error conditions
 Resource management
 User interruption
 Threading Issues(Cancellation)
266

 Thread cancellation is the task of terminating a

thread before it has completed

 Example: if multiple threads are concurrently

searching through a database and one thread
returns the result, remaining threads might be
cancelled.
 Threading Issues
267

 Thread cancellation is the task of terminating a

thread before it has completed

 Example: When a user presses a button on a

web browser that stops a web page from
loading any further, all threads loading the
page are cancelled.
 Threading Issues
268

 A thread that is to be canceled is often referred to as the target

thread.
 Cancellation of a target thread may occur in two different
scenarios:

Asynchronous cancellation:
1. The thread is terminated immediately upon cancellation
request, regardless of its current state or what it might be
doing.

Note: This can lead to resource leaks or inconsistent program

states.
 Threading Issues
269

 A thread that is to be canceled is often referred to as the target

thread. Cancellation of a target thread may occur in two
different scenarios:

Deferred Cancellation:

1. The cancellation request is held pending until the thread

reaches a predefined cancellation point.

2. At these points, the thread can be safely canceled, allowing

for cleanup and resource release before termination.
 Thread Cancellation
270

Where the difficulties lies with

thread cancellation?
 Thread Cancellation
271

In Situations where:

Asynchronous cancellation:
 Resources have been allocated to a canceled thread

 Thread is canceled while in the midst of updating data it is sharing

with other threads

 Often,the operating system will reclaim system resources from a

canceled thread but will not reclaim all resources.

 Therefore, canceling a thread asynchronously may not free a

necessary system-wide resource.
 Thread Cancellation
272

With deferred cancellation:

 one thread indicates that a target thread is to be
canceled,


 But cancellation occurs only after the target thread has

checked a flag to determine whether or not it should be
canceled.


 This allows a thread to check whether it should be

cancelled at a point at when it can be canceled safely.
273
274
275
 276

CPU SCHEDULING

Lecture#
 CPU Scheduling
277

 CPU scheduling refers to the switching between

processes that are being executed.
 This switching ensures that CPU utilization is
maximized so that the computer is more productive.
 CPU Scheduling
278

 CPU Scheduling is a process that allows one

process to use the CPU while another process is
delayed (in standby) due to unavailability of any
resources such as I / O etc, thus making full use of
the CPU.
 The purpose of CPU Scheduling is to make the
system more efficient, faster, and fairer.
 Types of Scheduling
279
280
281

 CPU Burst: It refers to the amount of time a process

actively uses the CPU without performing any I/O
operations. During a CPU burst, the process executes
instructions and performs calculations.

 I/O Burst: It refers to the period during which a

process is waiting for an I/O operation to complete.
During an I/O burst, the process is not actively using
the CPU but is waiting for some input/output
operation to finish, such as reading from or writing
to a disk, network, or other peripheral devices
282
283
284
285
 First Come First Serve (FCFS)
286

 The First Come First Serve (FCFS) algorithm

assigns the CPU to the process that arrives first in
the ready queue.
 This means that the process that requests the CPU
for its execution first will get the CPU allocated
first.
 This is managed through the FIFO queue.
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
 SJF(Without preemption)
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
 Round Robin Scheduling
302
 Round Robin Scheduling
303

 Round Robin scheduling algorithm is specially

designed for time sharing systems
 Similar to FCFS scheduling, but preemption is
added to switch between processes
 A small unit of time, called a time quantum or time
slice, is defined (generally from 1o to 1oo
milliseconds)
304
305
 Round Robin Scheduling
306
 Duration of Timeslice
307
 Round Robin Scheduling
308
 Priority based Scheduling
309

 A priority is associated with each process, and the

CPU is allocated to the process with the highest
priority.
 Equal priority processes are scheduled in FCFS
order.
310
 Priority based Scheduling
311
 Starvation
312

Note: Assuming after every 15th CPU cycle P1,P2,P3 & P4 are arriving
 Dealing with Starvation
313

 Scheduler adjusts priority of processes to ensure

that they all eventually execute
 Several techniques are possible. For Example:
 When a process starts it is given a base priority
 After every time slot increases the priority of all other
process except the process that is currently running.
 This ensure that even low priority process will eventually
execute
 After a process executes, its priority is reset.
 Types of Priorities
314
315
316
317
 318

DEADLOCKS

Lecture#42-43
 Deadlock
319

 Deadlock in OS refers to a situation where

more than one or two processes or threads
are not able to proceed because each is
waiting for the other to release a resource.
OR
 It’s a state where a group of processes
become stuck in a way that they can’t make
any progress.
 Deadlock
320

 Deadlock usually occurs in systems where multiple

processes compete for limited resources such as
 CPU time,
 memory
 input /output devices.
 Deadlock
321
 Deadlocks
322
 Deadlocks
323
 Resource Allocation Graph
324

 It is a directed graphs
 Used to model resource allocations in the system to
determine the whether the deadlock occurs in the
system or not.
 Resource Allocation Graph
325

 It is a directed graphs
 Used to model resource allocations in the system to
determine the whether the deadlock occurs in the
system or not.
 Resource Allocation Graph
326

 It is a directed graphs
 Used to model resource allocations in the system to
determine the whether the deadlock occurs in the
system or not.
 Resource Allocation Graph
327

 It is a directed graphs
 Used to model resource allocations in the system to
determine the whether the deadlock occurs in the
system or not.
 Necessary conditions for Deadlock
328

 There are four necessary conditions for a Deadlock

to occur
1. Mutual exclusion
2. Hold and wait
3. No pre-emption
4. Circular wait
 Necessary conditions for Deadlock
329

 There are four necessary conditions for a Deadlock to occur

1. Mutual exclusion: only one process can use it at a time.

2. Hold and wait: The process must hold at least one

resource while waiting to acquire additional resources.
3. No pre-emption: Resources cannot be pre-empted or
forcibly taken away from a process.
4. Circular wait: There must be a circular chain of one or
more processes, each of which is waiting for a
resource held by another process in the chain.
 Deadlock Conditions (Mutual Exclusion)
330

 only one process can use it at a time.

 Each resource is either available or currently

assigned to exactly one process

 Deadlock Conditions (Hold and Wait)
331

The process must hold at least one resource while

waiting to acquire additional resources.
 Deadlock Conditions (No pre-emption)
332

 Resources cannot be pre-

empted or forcibly taken
away from a process.

 They must be explicitly

release by the process
holding them
 Deadlock Conditions(Circular wait)
333

There must be a circular chain

of one or more processes,
each of which is waiting for a
resource held by another
process in the chain.
 Handling Deadlock
334
 Handling Deadlock (Prevention)
335

 Deadlock prevention strategies aim to eliminate

one or more of the necessary conditions for
Deadlock.
 This approach ensures that Deadlock cannot occur
in the system.
 One common method involves resource allocation
graphs or resource allocation policies to track and
manage resource allocation.
 Handling Deadlock (detection and recovery)
336

 Deadlock detection is a process of periodically

checking the system for the existing Deadlocks.
 Once the Deadlock is detected, the system can take
action to resolve it.
 Handling Deadlock (avoidance)
337

 Deadlock avoidance uses resource allocation

algorithms and request protocols to dynamically
allocate resources in a way that prevents the system
from entering a Deadlock state.
 The key is to make sure that resource requests do
not lead to situations where all necessary
conditions for Deadlock are met.
 Handling Deadlock (avoidance)
338

 Deadlock avoidance uses resource allocation

algorithms and request protocols to dynamically
allocate resources in a way that prevents the system
from entering a Deadlock state.
 The key is to make sure that resource requests do
not lead to situations where all necessary
conditions for Deadlock are met.
 339

SYNCHRONIZATION

Lecture#43-45
 Motivating Scenario
340
 Motivating Scenario
341
 Motivating Scenario
342
 Motivating Scenario
343
 Motivating Scenario
344
 Race Condition
345
 Race Condition in Multicore
346
 Critical Section Solution
347
 Solution to Critical Section problem
348

 Most solutions to the critical section problem

utilize locks implemented on software.
 Solutions include
 test_and_set
 compare_and_swap
 Mutex locks
 Semaphores
 Condition variables
 Solution to Critical Section problem
349

 Most solutions to the critical section problem utilize locks implemented on

software.
 solutions include:
 test_and_set: Uses a shared boolean variable lock and the test_and_set instruction
that executes atomically and sets the passed parameter value to true.
 compare_and_swap: Same as test_and_set, except that the passed parameter
value is set to true if it is equal to expected in the parameter of
the compare_and_swap instruction.
 Mutex locks: Software method that provides the acquire() and release() functions
that execute atomically.
 Semaphores: More sophisticated methods that utilize
the wait() and signal() operations that execute atomically on Semaphore S, which
is an integer variable.
 Condition variables: Utilizes a queue of processes that are waiting to enter the
critical section.
 Locks and Unlocks
350
351
 Using interrupt (applicable in single core system
only)
352
353