Scientific Research

Methodology
Unit 9: Methods of Data Collection
Al Ain University

College of

Business

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 Outline

1 Data Collection
Tools
2 Collecting Data Using Primary
Sources Observation
Interview
Questionnai
re
3 Interview vs.
Questionnaire
4 Formulating
Questions
5 Collecting Data Using Secondary
Sources

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 Outline

Research Journey

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 Data Collection Tools

Methods of Collecting Data

Most methods of data collection can be used in both
qualitative and quantitative research.
The distinction is mainly due to the restrictions imposed
on flex- ibility, structure, sequential order, depth and
freedom that a re- searcher has in their use during the
research process.
Quantitative methods favour these restrictions whereas
qualitative ones advocate against them.
Major Sources of Information:
Primary data:
The researcher undertakes the collection of required data.
Provide first hand information.
Secondary data:
Information is already available and need only be extracted and
reanalyzed.
Examples: Use of census data, government records, Data from
articles, journals,
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 Data Collection Tools

Methods of Collecting Data

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 Collecting Data Using Primary Sources Observation

Observation

Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way

of watching and listening to an interaction or
phenomenon as it takes place.
Observation is appropriate when you want to:
Learn about the interaction in a group.
Study the dietary patterns of a population.
Ascertain the functions performed by a worker.
Study behaviour of personality traits of an individual.
In summary, observation is the most appropriate
approach to col- lect information:
) when you are interested in the behaviour than in the perceptions
of individuals, or
) when subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are
unable to provide objective information

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 Collecting Data Using Primary Sources Observation

Types of Observation
Classification based on observer participation:
Participant Observations:
) The researcher participates in the activities of the group being
observed in the same manner as its members, with or without
their knowing that they are being observed.
) Examples: Mystery shopper, ethnographic studies.
Non-participant Observations:
) The research does not get involved in the activities of the group
but remains a passive observer, watching and listening to its ac-
tivities and drawing conclusions from this.
) Example: Observing participants via one-way mirror or a camera.
Classification based on researcher intervention:
Natural: Observing a subject in its natural operation rather
than intervening in its activities.
Controlled: Introducing a stimulus to the group to react to
and observing the reaction.
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 Collecting Data Using Primary Sources Observation

Problems with Observation

Hawthorne Effect: individuals or groups become aware

that they are being observed and change their behaviour
- What is observed may not represent their normal
behavior.
Observer Bias: The observer uses his or her own
subjective view or disposition to interpret events in the
setting being observed. The observer may be unaware
that she or he is doing this.
Variation in interpretation drawn from observation from
observer to observer.
Possibility of incomplete observation and/or recording.
Observer Error: The lack of understanding of, or
overfamiliarity with, the setting in which the observer is
trying to operate as a participant observer may lead the
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 Collecting Data Using Primary Sources Observation

Recording observations
Narrative:Making brief notes while observing the
interaction and soon after the observation make details
notes in narrative form.
) Advantage: provides a deeper insight into the interaction
) Disadvantage: bias, or unable to record important points.
Scales: Using a scale in order to rate various aspects of
the interaction or phenomenon.
) Disadvantage:
Lack of in-depth information
Error of central tendency: avoiding extreme position on the
scale. Elevation effect: tendency to use a particular part of the
scale. Halo effect: rating an individual on one aspect influences
the way to rate him/her on another aspect.
Categorical Recording: Similar to scales and depend on
classi- fication developed by researcher; e.g.
passive/active, etc.
Recording
R. Hijazi & M. Rahrouhon Mechanical Devices:
Scientific Research Observation recorded
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 Collecting Data Using Primary Sources Interview

Interview
An interview is a verbal interchange, often face to face, in
which an interviewer tries to elicit information, beliefs or
1
other person.(Burns,
opinions from
1997)person-to-person interaction, either face to face or
Any
otherwise, between two or more individuals with a specific
purpose in mind is called an interview.
Most common method of collecting information from
people. Researcher has a flexibility to select format,
content, wordings, order of question, etc.
Interviews are classified into different categories according
to the degree of flexibility in process of asking questions:
Unstructured interviews
Structured interviews
1Burns, R. B. (1997). Introduction
to Research Methods. Addison
Wesley
Longman.
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 Collecting Data Using Primary Sources Interview

Types of interview

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 Collecting Data Using Primary Sources Interview

Types of interview
 Unstructured interviews are used to gather data which are
nor- mally analyzed qualitatively. These data are likely to be
used not only to reveal and understand the ’what’ and the
’how’ but also to place more emphasis on exploring the
’why’.
The researcher is free to order the questions in whatever
sequence he/she wishes; no “interview schedule”.
The researcher has complete freedom in terms of the
wording used and the way in explaining questions to the
respondents.
The researcher may formulate questions and raise issues
on the spur of the moment, depending upon what occurs
to them in the context of the discussion.
Flexibility in interview structure, interview contents and
interview questionsScientific
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 Collecting Data Using Primary Sources Interview

Types of interview
 Structured interviews can be used in survey research to
gather data, which will then be the subject of quantitative
analysis.
The researcher asks a predetermined set of questions,
using the same wording and order of questions as
specified in the interview schedule.
) Interview schedule is a written list of questions, open ended or
closed, prepared for use by an interviewer.
) Note that interview schedule is a research tool/instrument
whereas interviewing is a method of data collection
This method provides uniform information that ensures
compara- bility of data.
Rigidity in interview structure, interview contents and
interview questions and their wording.
Less interviewing skills are required compared to the
unstructured
R. Hijazi & M. Rahrouh interviewing.
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 Collecting Data Using Primary Sources Questionnaire

Questionnaires
The questionnaire is a written list of questions, the
answers to which are recorded by respondents after
reading the questions and interpreting what is expected.
Difference between an interview schedule and a
questionnaire:
) Interview schedule: the interviewer asks the questions, and if
nec- essary, explains them, and records the respondent’s replies
on an interview schedule.
) Questionnaire: responses are recorded by the respondents them-
selves.
Qualities of a good questionnaire
) Questions clear and easy to understand.
) Layout easy to read, pleasant to eyes, and easy to follow.
) Developed in interactive style.
) Sensitive questions prefaced by an interactive statement explain-
ing the relevanceScientific
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 Collecting Data Using Primary Sources Questionnaire

Ways of Administering a Questionnaire

Mailed questionnaire:
) Posted to respondents who return them by post after
completion.
) Usually it is a good idea to send a prepaid, self-addressed
envelope with the questionnaire.
) Must be accompanied by a covering letter.
) Major problems: low response rate.
Collective administration:
) Captive audience (people assembled at one place) like students
in a class or people attending a function, seminar etc.
) Ensures high response rate.
) Can explain the purpose, relevance and importance of the study
and clarify any questions that respondents may have.
) Saves money on postages.
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 Collecting Data Using Primary Sources Questionnaire

Ways of Administering a Questionnaire

Administration in a public area:

) Administer a questionnaire in a public place such as a shopping
center, health center, hospital or school.
) Depends upon the type of study population you are looking for
and where it is likely to be found.
) Slightly more time consuming.
Web-based or Online questionnaires:
) Sent electronically using the Internet.
) Low response rate is expected but could be increased by sending
reminders.

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 Interview vs. Questionnaire

Interview or questionnaire?
The choice between a questionnaire and an interview
schedule is important and should be considered
thoroughly as the strengths and weaknesses of the two
methods can affect the validity of the findings.
The nature of the investigation and the socioeconomic-
demographic characteristics of the study population are
central in this choice.
The selection between an interview schedule and a
questionnaire should be based upon the following
criteria:
) The nature of investigation: Sensitive questions, questionnaire
better.
) The geographical distribution of the study population: Respon-
dents scattered, use questionnaire - cheaper.
) Type of study population: Illiterate, very young or very old, or
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 Interview vs. Questionnaire

Advantages and disadvantages of a

questionnaire
Advantages of a questionnaire
Less expensive
Offers greater anonymity
Disadvantages of a questionnaire
Application is limited - only literate can participate.
Low response rate.
Self-selecting bias - not everyone returns questionnaire.
Opportunity to clarify issues is lacking.
Spontaneous responses are not allowed for - gives time to reflect
before answering.
Response to a question may be influenced by the response to
other questions - respondents may read all question before an-
swering.
It is possible to consult others (mailed questionnaire)
A response cannot be supplemented with other information
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 Interview vs. Questionnaire

Advantages and disadvantages of the

interview
Advantages of the interview
More appropriate for complex situations
Useful for collecting in-depth information - probing is possible
Information can be supplemented - non-verbal reactions
Questions can be explained
Interviewing has a wider application - used with any
population.
Disadvantages of the interview
Interviewing is time consuming and expensive - for
geographically scattered population.
The quality of data depends upon the quality of the interaction
between an interviewer and interviewee.
The quality of data depends upon the quality of the interviewer
- experience, skills, commitment etc.
The quality of data may vary when many interviewers are used.
The researcher may introduce his/her bias in framing and inter-
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 Formulating Questions

Forms of question

Open ended questions:

Possible responses are not given, commonly used for
seeking opinions, attitudes and perceptions.
Respondents write down the answers in their words.
Investigators records the answers either verbatim or in
a summary.

Advantages:
)Provide in-depth and wealth of information.
)Provide opportunity for respondent to express their opinion,
resulting in more variety of information.
) Allow respondents to express themselves freely; eliminate
the possibility of investigator bias.

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 Formulating Questions

Forms of question:

Open ended questions:

Disadvantages:
) Analysis is more difficult (must do content analysis in order to
classify the data).
) Some respondents may not be able to express themselves, so
information may be lost.
) Greater chance of interviewer bias.

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 Formulating Questions

Examples of Open-ended Questions

What is your year of birth?

How would you describe your current marital

status? . . . . . . . . . . What is your average monthly
salary? $ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What was your
high school experience like?
.........................................
....................
.........................................
....................
.........................................
....................
Please list up to three things you like about your job.
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 Formulating Questions

Forms of question

Closed questions:
Possible answers are set out and the respondent or the
investigator ticks the category that best describes the
respondent’s answer; useful for eliciting factual
information.
Category ‘Other/please explain’ to accommodate any
response not listed.
Advantages:
) Ready-made categories; help ensure info needed is obtained.
) Responses are easy to analyze.
Disadvantages:
) Lack depth and variety in information.
) investigators bias - may list only the responses of his choice.
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 Formulating Questions

Examples of Closed Questions

What is your nationality? Please tick C the appropriate
box

❑ UAE ❑ GCC ❑ Arab ❑ Other

Please number each of the factors listed below in order of

impor- tance to you in choosing a new car. Number the
most important 1, the next 2 and so on.
[] Carbon dioxide emissions [] Depreciation
[] Boot size [] Price

I feel employees’ views have influenced the decisions taken

by management.

❑ Strongly agree ❑ Disagree

❑ Agree ❑ Strongly disagree
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 Formulating Questions

Formulating Effective Questions

Always use simple and everyday language.

) Example: What do you think of the organizational structure of
the company you work for?
Do not use ambiguous (more than one meaning)
questions.
) Example: Are you satisfied with the Cafeteria?
Avoid double-barreled items (two questions in one).
) Example: Please rate your satisfaction with the amount and kind
of care you received while in the hospital.
Avoid leading questions (questions that imply an
answer).
) Example: Most doctors believe that exercise is good for you. Do
you agree?
Do not ask questions based on presumptions.
Example: How many
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 Formulating Questions

More on Formulating Effective Questions

Avoid burdensome questions (tax memory or

skills). Avoid negative words and double
negatives.
Cultural differences in meaning (Phrases or words have
different meanings to different population subgroups).
Avoid loaded questions (socially desirable answer or
emotionally charged).
Keep open-ended questions to a minimum.
Use mutually exclusive questions(use “Other” and
“please spec- ify” to allow for some flexibility)
Consider alternate ways to ask sensitive questions.
Important tip: Pretest the questionnaire.
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 Formulating Questions

Construction of a Research Instrument

Most important since quality and validity of the output
are solely dependent upon it.
Ensure validity of your instrument by making sure that
your ques- tions relate to the objectives of your study.
Procedure to construct a research instrument:
Step 1:Clearly define and individually list all the specific
objec- tives, research questions or hypotheses to
be tested.
Step 2:For each objectives, research question or
hypothesis, list
all the associated questions that you want to answer
through your study.
Step 3:Take each research question identified in Step 2
and list the information required to answer it.
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 Formulating Questions

Construction of a Research Instrument

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 Formulating Questions

Personal and Sensitive Questions

Researchers sometimes ask sensitive questions in

surveys. Re- spondents are often hesitant to answer
sensitive items, so item nonresponse on these questions
is normally higher than for other questions in a survey.
It is recommended to ask personal or sensitive questions
after es- tablishing rapport with the respondent in the
middle of the ques- tionnaire or the interview.
Sensitive questions could be addressed in two ways:
) Direct method:
Advantage: accuracy of affirmative answer
Disadvantages: offend respondents, possibility of getting no-
response
) Indirect method:
Advantage: Avoid offending respondents
Disadvantages: May not produce affirmative answer
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 Formulating Questions

Order of Questions
The opening questions should be interesting, simple, and
non- threatening.
As a general guideline, basic information should be
obtained first, followed by classification, and, finally,
identification information.
Difficult questions or questions which are sensitive,
embarrassing, complex, or dull, should be placed late in
the sequence.
Two opinions regarding the order of questions:
) Random order:useful in a situations where a researcher wants
respondents to express their agreement or disagreement with dif-
ferent aspects of an issue.
) Logical order:is better as it gradually leads respondents into the
themes of the study, starting with simple themes and progressing
to complex ones.Scientific Research Methodology
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 Collecting Data Using Secondary Sources

Collecting Data Using Secondary Sources

Both qualitative and quantitative research studies use
secondary sources as a method of data collection.
) In quantitative research the information extracted is categorical
or numerical.
) In qualitative research you usually extract descriptive (historical
and current) and narrative information.
Categories of secondary sources:
) Government or semi-government publications
(Statistics centers)
) Earlier research
) Personal records
) Mass media
Problems with Using Data from
Secondary Sources:
) Validity and reliability: Varies from source to
source
Personal
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