Unit II

Bipolar Junction Transistor

BJT: Construction and working of PNP/NPN

input and output characteristics - common emitter
configuration – common base configuration – common
collector configuration
DC load line – Q-Point (fixed bias only)
Transistor as an amplifier and switch
 What we are going to study now?
• NPN / PNP Transistors
• CB, CE, CC Configuration
• Input / output Characteristics
• Model Graphs
• How it works?
• Other Applications
 BJT
• It is a 3 terminal semiconductor device

• Operation depends on the both majority and minority carriers

• Current controlled device

Types of BJT
NPN [e-s majority charges and holes minority charges ]

PNP [holes majority charges and e-s minority charges ]

Construction of BJT
• The transistor in which one p-type material is placed between
two n-type materials is known as NPN transistor

• The transistor in which one n-type material is placed

between two p-type materials is known as PNP transistor

The three terminals of transistors are Emitter[heavily doped] ,

Base[lightly doped] and Collector [moderately doped]
Transistor biasing
• Usually the E-B Junction is forward biased and C-B Junction
is reverse biased

• Due to forward bias of E-B Junction an emitter current flows

through the base into the collector

• Though C-B Junction is reverse biased , almost the entire

current flows through the collector circuit
Operation of NPN transistor

• When the forward bias is applied across the emitter, the

majority charge carriers move towards the base. This causes
the emitter current IE

• The base of the NPN transistor is lightly doped. Due to which

only a few electrons are combined constitutes the base current
IB

• The remaining charges enter into the collector region

• The reversed bias potential of the collector region applies the

high attractive force on the electrons reaching collector
junction. Thus attract or collect the electrons at the collector
• The whole of the emitter current is entered into the collector

• Thus, we can say that the emitter current is the sum of the
collector and the base current

• IE=IC+IB

• IC 90% to 95% and IB 10% to 5% only

Operation of PNP transistor

• When the forward bias is applied across the emitter, the

majority charge carriers move towards the base. This causes
the emitter current IE

• The base of the PNP transistor is lightly doped. Due to which

only a few holes are combined constitutes the base current IB

• The remaining charges enter into the collector region

• The reversed bias potential of the collector region applies the

high attractive force on the holes reaching collector junction.
Thus attract or collect the holes at the collector
• The whole of the emitter current is entered into the collector

• Thus, we can say that the emitter current is the sum of the
collector and the base current

• IE=IC+IB

• IC 90% to 95% and IB 10% to 5% only

• Transistor consists of two PN Junctions
– emitter-base junction (EBJ)
– collector-base junction (CBJ)
• Operating mode depends on biasing.
– active mode – used for amplification
– cutoff and saturation modes – used for
switching.
Types of transistor configuration

• When a transistor is to be connected in a circuit,

one terminal is used as an i/p terminal,
other terminal is used as an o/p terminal and the
third terminal is common to both the i/p and o/p

• 3 types of transistor configuration

Common Base or grounded Base [CB]
Common Emitter or grounded Emitter[CE]
Common Collector or grounded Collector[CC]
 3 types of transistor configuration
Configuration input Output Common terminal Circuit

Common Base Emitter Collector Base

or grounded
Base [CB]

Common Base Collector Emitter

Emitter or
grounded
Emitter[CE]

Common Base Emitter Collector

Collector or
grounded
Collector[CC]
 3 types of transistor configuration
Configura input Output Common Circuit INPUT V-I OUTPUT
tion terminal V-I

Common
Base or
Emitter Collector Base
VBE VBC
grounded
Base [CB] IE IC
Common Base
Emitter or
Collector Emitter
VBE VCE
grounded
Emitter
[CE]
IB IC
Common
Collector
Base Emitter Collector
VBC VCE
or
grounded
Collector
IB IE
[CC]
Current amplification factor

Ratio between output current and input current

In CB configuration

In CE configuration

In CC configuration
Relationship between α,𝛽 and 𝛾
Between α and 𝛽
Between α and 𝛾 Between 𝛽 and 𝛾
α, 𝛽 and 𝛾 relationship:
Amplifying action is produced by transferring a current
from low-resistance to a high-resistance circuit (ie)

Transfer + Resistor Transistor

Sample Problems
1. In a CB connection IE=1mA IC=0.95mA find IB

Base current=0.05 mA

2. In a CB connection ,current amplification factor is 0.9. If the

emitter current is 1 mA, determine base current

Base current=0.1 mA

3. In a CB configuration, IC=0.95 mA and IB=0.05 mA, Find the

value of α

α =0.95
4. Find 𝛽 if α =0.9,0.98 and 0.99

𝛽 =9,49 and 99

5. Find IE when 𝛽 =50 and IB=20 μA

IE=1.02 mA

6. In a transistor IB=68 μA ,IE=30 mA & 𝛽=440. Determine α

rating and then the value of IC using both α & 𝛽 rating of the
transistor
α=0.9977 IC= α IE= 29.93 mA

IC= 𝛽 IB = 29.93 mA
Early effect or base width modulation:

Without applying VEB and VCB

After applying VEB and VCB

Base Width modulation (or) Early Effect
The early effect is the variation in the width of the base in a
BJT due to a variation in the applied base-to-collector voltage

We know that in a PN junction, the width of a depletion region

increases as the reverse bias voltage increase

In a transistor, since the emitter base junction is forward

biased, therefore this has no effect on the width of depletion
region
However the collector base junction is reverse biased therefore
as the reverse bias voltage across the collector base junction
increases, the width of depletion region also increases

Since the base is lightly doped, as compared to the collector,

therefore depletion region penetrates deeper into the base
region. This reduces the effect width of the base region

This variation or modulation of the effective base width, by

the collector voltage, is known as base-width modulation or
early effect
The decrease in base width by the collector voltage has the
following effects

1. It reduces the chances of recombination of electrons with the

holes in the base region. Hence the common base-current gain
(α) increases with the increase of collector to base voltage V CB

2. For extremely large collector voltage, the collector base width

may be reduced to zero, causing a voltage break down of a
transistor. This phenomenon is known as “punch through”
INTRODUCTION
to
CB, CE & CC Characteristics
 I/P and O/P Characteristics

Input Characteristics
• It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input
voltage to input current where as output voltage is constant

Output Characteristics
• It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output
voltage to output current where as input current is constant
 3 types of transistor configuration
Configura input Output Common Circuit INPUT V-I OUTPUT
tion terminal V-I

Common
Base or
Emitter Collector Base
VBE VBC
grounded
Base [CB] IE IC
Common Base
Emitter or
Collector Emitter
VBE VCE
grounded
Emitter
[CE]
IB IC
Common
Collector
Base Emitter Collector
VBC VCE
or
grounded
Collector
IB IE
[CC]
CB configuration
Input characteristics:
To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage V CB is
kept constant at zero and emitter current I E is increased from zero by
increasing VEB it behaves as a diode

This is repeated for higher fixed values of VCB the curve shifted in
the left direction
Output characteristics
To determine output characteristics, the emitter current I E is kept
constant at zero and collector current Ic is increased from zero by
increasing VCB. This is repeated for higher fixed values of IE

From the characteristic it is seen

that for a constant value of IE, Ic is
independent of VCB and the curves
are parallel to the axis of VCB
 CE configuration
IC
- R
m +
A

C-n
IB
R - B-p
+ μ +
A +

V
+ E-n -
+ - VCC
V VCE
VBB
- VBE
-
I/P characteristics curve:
• First make VCE=0, when the applied VBE crosses barrier
potential the current IB flows (ie) BJT acts as a diode
• Now increase VCE, [VCE=VCB+VBE],VCB also get increased and
the base width is reduced and IB get decreased
• So the curve shifted in the right direction
O/P characteristics curve:
IC=αIE [ collector current is independent of VCB]
α ≈ 1 therefore IC= IE

Active region –Amplifier

Cut-off region –open switch
Saturation region –closed switch
Different regions of transistor:
• When IC=0 [due to reverse bias of VBE & VCB] transistor acts as
a open switch or off state or 0 state –region is cut-off

• When IC=max[due to forward bias of VBE & VCB]

transistor acts as a closed switch or on state or 1 state –region
is saturation

• Due to forward bias of VBE & reverse bias VCB

transistor acts as an amplifier –region is active
Regions of operation:
Input characteristics curve:
•VEC is kept constant at zero and IB is increased from zero by
increasing VBC. This is repeated for higher fixed values of VEC

•Now increase VCE, [VCE=VCB+VBE],VCB also get increased and

the base width is reduced and IB get decreased

•So the curve shifted in the right direction

Output characteristics
• From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of I B, IE
is independent of VEC and the curves are parallel to the axis of VEC
CB
WHEN VCB INCREASES, WIDTH OF THE BASE REGION IS DECREASED SO EMITTER
CURRENT INCREASES
HENCE, VCB CURVE MOVES TO THE LEFT

CE
WHEN VCE INCREASES, THE DEPLETION REGION DIMISISHES AND DECREASES THE
BASE CURRENT. HENCE, VCB CURVE MOVES TO THE RIGHT

CC
WHEN VBC INCREASES, BASE CURRENT DECREASES FOR A PARTICULAR VALUE OF
VCE. HENCE, VCB CURVE MOVES TO THE RIGHT
CB

WHEN IE=0, A DRIFT CURRENT WILL FLOW KNOWN AS DRIFT CURRENT. WHEN IE IS
INCREASED, IC ALSO INCREASES BUT IT IS INDEPENDENT OF VCB – STRAIGHT LINE IN
OUTPUT CURVE

CE

SLIGHT INCREASE IN THE SLOPE IS DUE TO THE LARGE VALUES OF BETA. CURVES
WILL BE SLIGHTLY INCLINED AS THE VCE HAS SOME EFFECT ON IC.

CC
SIMILAR TO CE CHARACTERISTICS. REPLACE IC WITH IE
Comparison between the configurations
Summary of CB, CE & CC Characteristics
• VCB is reverse biased
• VCB Junction depletion
region increases
• Base region narrows
• Less current/voltage
is required
ACTIVE REGION
vcb increases, ic is constant
ic = α . ie
ic to ie is current gain
even if reverse bias voltage, there is a
marginal increase in collector current
ic changes because of change in input
current
ic is like a constant current source

SATURATION REGION
vcb is reduces ic is reduced
both junctions are forward biased

CUTOFF REGION
ie is 0 and ic is also 0
reverse saturation current
icbo reverse saturation current
• Vcb increases
• Depletion region
gets wider
• Base width
reduces
• Ib reduces
• Hence input curve
moves right
• VCE INCREASES VCB
INCREASES
• BASE WIDTH
REDUCES
• AS VCE INCREASES,
IC ALSO
INCREASES
Fixed Vce and Vcb increases Ib decreases
when Vce is increased then Ib will increase
• Common Base Configuration – has Voltage Gain but no
Current Gain.

• Common Emitter Configuration – has both Current and

Voltage Gain.

• Common Collector Configuration – has Current Gain but no

Voltage Gain.
DC Load line and Fixed bias
DC Load line

o/p side VCC=ICRC+VCE

When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is

applied at its input, the load line drawn at such condition,
can be understood as DC condition
 It is used to determine the
correct DC operating point, often
called the Q point.
Q point or the operating point
of a device, also known as a bias
point, or quiescent point

To obtain A
To obtain B
When VCE = 0,
When the IC = 0,
VCE=VCC−ICRC
VCE=VCC−ICRC
0=VCC−ICRC
VCE=VCC
IC=VCC/RC
Q point near saturation region

Positive portion of
w/f is clipped
Q point is near cut-off region

Negative portion of
w/f is clipped
Q point near active region

Proper amplification is
done
Q point by different RC
Fixed bias or Base bias

From the i/p side From the o/p side

1.If base current is 40μA and 𝛽=80 calculate Ic ,VCE, Rc and RB
[consider VBE as 0.7 V]

(i) Ic=𝛽IB Ic=80*40μ=3.2 mA

(ii) VCE=VC-VE=6-0=6 V

(iii) Rc=(VCC-VCE) / IC=2.5kΩ

(iv) RB=(VCC-VBE)/IB= 332.5 kΩ

2. Find Ic, Vcc, 𝛽and RB
Transistor - switch & amplifier
Transistor as a Switch
• A transistor is used for switching operation for
opening or closing of a circuit

• Both NPN and PNP transistors can be used as

switches

• Based on the voltage applied at the base terminal of a

transistor switching operation is performed
 When Vin is low

Vi ↓ IB ↓ IC ↓ VRC ↓ VO ↑ wkt VO=VCC - ICRC

It acts as an open switch

When Vin is high

Vi↑ IB↑ IC↑ VRC↑ VO↓ wkt VO=VCC - ICRC

It acts as closed switch

Waveform of switch
Amplifier raises the strength of a weak signal
Transistor as an Amplifier

• The input signal or weak signal is applied across the

emitter base and the output is obtained to the load
resistor RC which is connected in the collector circuit
Common-Emitter Configuration
• For a transistor to work as an amplifier we usually
use the common-emitter configuration

• The input is connected in forward-biased and the

output is connected in reverse-biased

• The input signal is applied on the base-emitter

junction and the output is taken through the load in
emitter-collector junction

• There is also an application of DC voltage in the

input circuit for amplification
without ac signal with ac signal

wrt small ac signal

Vi ↑ → ib↑ → ic↑ → │ ic RC │ ↑ → │ Vo │ ↑

Note that Vi is increasing positively,

whereas Vo increases negatively i.e. Vo
is out of phase with respect to Vin
Hence Vo is 180 °out of phase with Vin
 CB amplifier

│ Vi │ ↑ → iE↑ → ic↑ → │ ic RC │ ↑ → │ Vo │ ↑

Hence Vo is in phase with Vin

1. Two amplifiers are connected in a series (cascaded).
The voltage gain of the first amplifier is 10 and the
second has 20 voltage gain. The input signal is given
as 0.01 V. Calculate the output of the AC signal?

Answer:

Total voltage gain is AV = AV1 * AV2 = ∆Vo / ∆Vi

∆Vo = ∆Vi * AV1 * AV2

= 0.01 * 10 * 20 = 2V
2.Sketch the CC configuration using PNP transistor
3. The AC current gain of a transistor β is 130. What
is the change in the collector current in the transistor
whose base current changes by 150μA?

Given:
β=130, ΔIB=150µA

β= ΔIC/ΔIB= AC current gain

130 = ΔIC/150x10-6 = 19.5mA

 4. Differentiate the CE and CC transistor configurations.

Characteristics Common Emitter Common Collector

Input Resistance Low (about 750Ω) Very high(about 750kΩ)

Output Resistance High (about 45kΩ) Low (about 50Ω)

Voltage gain About 500 Less than 1

Current gain High β Appreciable

Applications Audio Frequency applications Impedance matching

5.Two different square pulse with amplitudes 0.5V and 5V (with
any time period) are applied as an input to the transistor (Si)
switching circuit. Draw the input and output waveform for
both the cases.
 7. For a transistor, β=45 and voltage drop across 1kΩ
which is connected in the collector circuit is 1 volt.
Find the IB for CE connection.

Solution :
Solution