CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Discovery of electron, proton and neutron,

By:- Vinod Kumar

Discovery of Electron
• Scientists mainly Faraday performed experiments
using cathode ray discharge tubes.
• A cathode ray tube is made of glass containing two
thin pieces of metal, called electrodes, sealed in it.
• At very low pressure and at very high voltages, a
stream of particles moving in the tube from the
negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode
(anode) was observed.
• These were called cathode rays or cathode ray
particles.
Discovery of Electron
• The flow of a stream of particles from cathode to anode was further
Giving off light
checked by using perforated anode and coating the tube behind anode with after radiation
phosphorescent material zinc sulphide. has hit it

• When these rays, after passing through anode, strike the zinc sulphide coating, a
bright spot is developed on the coating
• These rays themselves are not visible but their behaviour can be observed with
the help of certain kind of materials (fluorescent or phosphorescent) which glow
when hit by them.
• Television picture tubes are cathode ray tubes and television pictures result due
to fluorescence on the television screen coated with certain fluorescent or
phosphorescent materials. Fluorescent materials cease to glow nearly
immediately when the radiation source stops,
unlike phosphorescent materials, which
continue to emit light for some time after.
Characteristics of Cathode Rays
• Travel in straight line.
• Consist of Particles.
• Particles consisting cathode rays are negatively charged
• Cathode rays can ionize gas.
• They can heat objects that they hit
• Charge/mass ratio of the particles is independent of nature of material of electrode and
nature of gas present in Cathode ray tube.
• These particles were named as electron by J.J Thomson
Characteristic of electron
• Electrons are negatively charged.
• Represented by e or
• J.J. Thomson measured the (charge to mass)ratio of the electrons.
• This is = 1.758820 × 1011 C kg–1
• R.A. Millikan, using oil drop experiment, determined the charge on the
electrons.
• The present accepted value of electrical charge is – 1.602176 × 10–19 C
Discovery of Protons
• In 1886 Goldstein discovered existence of positively charged rays in the discharge tube by using
perforated cathode. These rays were named as anode rays or canal rays.
• The discovery of protons can be attributed to Rutherford.
Characteristics of Canal Rays
• Travel in straight line.
• Consists of Particles.
• Particles consisting of canal rays are positively charged
• Canal rays can ionize gas.
• They can heat objects that they hit
• Charge/mass ratio of the particles is depend on the nature of gas present in Cathode ray tube.
• The smallest and lightest positive particle was obtained from hydrogen and was
called proton.
Characteristic of proton
• Protons are positively charged.
• Represented by p or
• The (charge to mass)ratio of the proton= 9.6 x 107C kg–
1

• The charge on proton is + 1.602176 × 10–19 C

• It is 1837 times heavier than an electron

Discovery of Neutrons
• Neutrons were discovered by Chadwick (1932) by bombarding a thin
sheet of beryllium by a-particles.
• It has no electrical charge i.e. it is neutral
• It is represented as ‘n’
• Its mass is slightly greater than that of proton
• It is 1842 times heavier than an electron
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Atomic Models-Thomson atomic model and Rutherford atomic model
• X-rays,
• Radioactivity
• Atomic Number, Mass Number , Isotopes, Isobars

By:- Vinod Kumar

Thomson Model of Atom
• Thomson proposed that:
(i) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and
the electrons are embedded(fixed firmly and deeply) in it.
(ii) The negative and positive charges are equal in
magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is electrically
neutral.
• Important features-
• Many different names
• Thomson’s model explained that atoms are
are given to this model,
electrically neutral,
for example, plum
• Mass of the atom is assumed to be uniformly
pudding, raisin pudding
distributed over the atom
or watermelon.
• Drawbacks:-The results of experiments carried out by
other scientists could not be explained by this model
Discovery of X-rays
• Wilhalm Röentgen (1845-1923) in 1895 showed that when electrons
strike a material in the cathode ray tubes, produce rays which can cause
fluorescence in the fluorescent materials placed outside the cathode ray
tubes.
• Since Röentgen did not know the nature of the radiation, he named them
X-rays and the name is still carried on.
• It was noticed that X-rays are produced effectively when electrons strike
the dense metal anode, called targets.
• These are not deflected by the electric and magnetic fields and have a
very high penetrating power through the matter and that is the reason
that these rays are used to study the interior of the objects.
• These rays are of very short wavelengths (~0.1 nm) and possess electro-
magnetic character
Radioactivity
• Discovered by-Henri Becqueral (1852-1908)
• Certain elements emit radiation on their own. These elements are known as
radioactive elements and this phenomenon is known as radioactivity
• This field was developed by Marie Curie, Piere Curie, Rutherford and Fredrick Soddy.
• Radioactive elements may emit three kinds of rays i.e., a, b- and g-rays .
• Rutherford found that a-rays consists of high energy particles carrying two units of
positive charge and four unit of atomic mass. He concluded that a- particles are
helium nuclei as when a- particles combined with two electrons yielded helium gas.
• b-rays are negatively charged particles similar to electrons.
• The g-rays are high energy radiations like X-rays, are neutral in nature and do not
consist of particles.
• As regards penetrating power,
• a-particles < b-rays (100 times that of a–particles) < g-rays (1000 times of that
a-particles).
Rutherford’s a–particle scattering
experiment
• Rutherford and his students (Hans Geiger and
Ernest Marsden) bombarded very thin gold foil with
a–particles
• The thin gold foil had a circular fluorescent zinc
sulphide screen around it.
• Whenever a–particles struck the screen, a tiny a-particles are
A gold foil was selected because
flash ofislight
gold the was
mostproduced at metal
malleable that point. doubly-
and he wanted as thin a layer as charged
possible helium ions.
Observation of Rutherford’s a–particle scattering
experiment
1. Most of the a–particles passed through the gold foil
undeflected.
2. A small fraction of the a–particles was deflected by
small angles.
3. A very few a–particles (~1 in 20,000) bounced back,
that is, were deflected by nearly 1800.
Conclusion form Rutherford’s a–particle scattering
experiment
4. Most of the space in the atom is empty
5. The positive charge is concentrated in a very
small volume called nucleus .
6. The volume occupied by the nucleus is negligibly
small as compared to the total volume of the
Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom
1. The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom is densely
concentrated in extremely small region called nucleus
2. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called
orbits.
3. Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic
forces of attraction.
Rutherford’s model of atom resembles the solar
system in which the nucleus plays the role of sun
and the electrons that of revolving planets.
This is also known as planetary model of the atom
Atomic Number (Z) :-
• The number of protons present in the nucleus is equal to atomic number .
• Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
= number of electrons in a neutral atom
Nucleons:-
• Protons and neutrons present in the nucleus are collectively known as nucleons
Mass Number (A):-
• Sum of the total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.
• The total number of nucleons is termed as mass number (A) of the atom.
Mass number (A) = number of protons (Z) + number of neutrons (n)

Notation for an
atom
Problem 2.1
Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in
Solution:- Z = 35, A = 80, species is neutral
Number of protons = number of electrons = Z = 35
Number of neutrons = A – Z = 80 – 35 = 45,
Problem 2.2
The number of electrons, protons and neutrons in a species are equal to 18, 16 and 16
respectively. Assign the proper symbol to the species.
Solution:- The atomic number (Z)= number of protons = 16. The element is sulphur (S).
Mass number (A)= number of protons + number of neutrons = 16 + 16 = 32
Species is not neutral as the number of protons is not equal to electrons.
It is anion (negatively charged) with charge equal to excess electrons = 18 – 16 = 2.
Symbol is
Isotopes:-
• Atoms with same atomic number but different mass number are known as
Isotopes.
• For example – 3 isotopes of hydrogen

• Isotopes of chlorine-

Isobars:-
• Atoms with same mass number but different atomic number are known as
isobars.
• For example,
 Drawbacks of Rutherford Model
• The Rutherford model cannot explain the stability of an atom, if the motion of an
electron is described on the basis of the classical mechanics and
electromagnetic theory.
• It says nothing about distribution of the electrons around the nucleus and the
Classical mechanics
energies is a electrons
of these when a body is
theoretical science based moving in an orbit,
on Newton’s laws of it undergoes
motion. It specifies the acceleration
laws of motion of
According to the electromagnetic
macroscopic objects
theory of Maxwell, charged particles
when accelerated should emit
electromagnetic radiation
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Parameters of wave
• Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Shortcomings of wave nature of the electromagnetic radiation
• diffraction and interference

By:- Vinod Kumar

Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Proposed by James Maxwell
• When electrically charged particle moves under acceleration, alternating electrical and
magnetic fields are produced and transmitted.
• These fields are transmitted in the forms of waves called electromagnetic waves or
electromagnetic radiations.
• Light is• the
In form ofdays
earlier electromagnetic radiation.
(Newton) light was supposed to be made of particles
(corpuscules).
• It was only in the 19th century when wave nature of light was
established.
• Maxwell told that light waves are associated with oscillating electric and
magnetic character i.e. light is electromagnetic radiation or
electromagnetic wave
 Simple properties of electromagnetic wave or
radiation
• The oscillating electric and magnetic fields
produced by oscillating charged particles are
perpendicular to each other and both are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave
• Electromagnetic waves do not require medium and
can move in vacuum.
• There are many types of electromagnetic
radiations, which differ from one another in
wavelength (or frequency). These constitute what
is called electromagnetic spectrum
Simple properties of electromagnetic wave or radiation
• These radiations are characterised by the properties,
namely,
• frequency (n ,nu) and wavelength (l, lambda).
• Wavelength:-distance between two successive wave crests
or troughs. Its SI unit is metre (m)
• Frequency:-number of waves that pass a given point in one
second. The SI unit for frequency (n ) is hertz (Hz, OR s–1),
• In vaccum all types of electromagnetic radiations travel at
the same speed, i.e., 3.0 × 108 m s–1 (2.997925 × 108 m s–
1
, to be precise). This is called speed of light and is given
the symbol ‘c‘.
• The frequency (n ), wavelength (l) and velocity of light (c)
are related by the equation c=n l
Wavenumber ( ).
• It is defined as the number of wavelengths per
unit length.

• Its units are reciprocal of wavelength unit, i.e.,

m–1.
• However commonly used unit is cm–1.

• Amplitude is the distance between the midline of a wave and its crest or
trough. It tells about brightness, or intensity, of the wave
• The period is the time it takes a wave to complete one cycle. We measure the
period in seconds, and we symbolize it with the capital letter T
• Frequency is the number of cycles that are completed in one second.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Arrangement of all electromagnetic waves according to frequency and wavelength.

• Radio frequency region around

106Hz, used for broadcasting;
• microwave region around 1010
Hz used for radar;
• infrared region around 1013 Hz
used for heating;
• ultraviolet region around 1016Hz
a component of sun’s radiation.
• The small portion around 1015
Hz, is called visible light. (l AM (Amplitude Modulation) and FM (Frequency
=380 to 700 nm) Modulation) are types of modulation (coding)
Problem 2.3
The Vividh Bharati station of All India Radio, Delhi, broadcasts on a frequency of
1,368 kHz (kilo hertz). Calculate the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation
emitted by transmitter. Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum does it belong
to?
Solution:-

This wavelength belongs to radio wave

Problem 2.4
The wavelength range of the visible spectrum extends from violet (400 nm) to red
(750 nm). Express these wavelengths in frequencies (Hz). (1nm = 10-9 m)
Solution:- frequency of violet light

frequency of red light

Problem 2.5
Calculate (a) wavenumber and (b) frequency of yellow radiation having
wavelength 5800 Å.
Solution:-
(a) Calculation of wavenumber ( )
l=5800Å = 5800 × 10-10m

(b) Calculation of the frequency (n )

Shortcomings of wave nature of the electromagnetic radiation
• Some of the experimental phenomenon such as diffraction and interference can be
explained by the wave nature of the electromagnetic radiation.
• However, following are some of the observations which could not be explained with the
help of even the electromagnetic theory of 19th century physics (known as classical
physics):
• (i) the nature of emission of radiation from hot bodies (black -body radiation)
• (ii) ejection of electrons from metal surface when radiation strikes it (photoelectric
effect)
• (iii) variation of heat capacity of solids as a function of temperature
• (iv) Line spectra of atoms with special reference to hydrogen.
 Diffraction is the spreading of waves
around obstacles

Dispersion of Light’ is the

splitting of white light when it
passes through a glass prism
into its constituent spectrum
of colors

Refraction is the bending of light (it

also happens with sound, water and
other waves) as it passes from one
transparent substance into another.
Interference is the combination of two waves of the same or
different frequencies to give a wave whose distribution at
each point in space is the algebraic or vector sum of
disturbances at that point resulting from each interfering
wave.
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Black Body Radiation
• Planck’s Quantum Theory
• Photoelectric Effect

By:- Vinod Kumar

Black -Body Radiation
• An ideal body, which emits and absorbs radiations of all
frequencies uniformly, is called a black body and the
radiation emitted by such a body is called black body
radiation.
• In practice, no such body exists.
• Carbon black approximates fairly closely to black body.
• A good physical approximation to a black body is a cavity
with a tiny hole, which has no other opening.
• Any ray entering the hole will be reflected by the cavity
walls and will be eventually absorbed by the walls
Black -Body Radiation
• when an iron rod is heated in a furnace, it first turns to
dull red and then progressively becomes more and more
red, then becomes white and then becomes blue as the
temperature becomes very high
• This means that red radiation is most intense at a
particular temperature and the blue radiation is more
intense at another temperature.
• Frequency of the radiation emitted goes from a lower frequency to a
higher frequency as the temperature increases.
Black -Body Radiation
• The amount of light emitted (intensity of
radiation) from a black body and its spectral
distribution depends only on its temperature.
• At a given temperature, intensity of radiation
emitted increases with the increase of
wavelength, reaches a maximum value at a
given wavelength and then starts decreasing
with further increase of wavelength.
• Also, as the temperature increases, maxima of
the curve shifts to short wavelength (higher
frequency).
• These results could not be explained on the
basis of the wave theory of light.
Planck’s Quantum Theory
• Atoms and molecules emit or absorb energy only in discrete quantities (packets)
and not in a continuous manner.
• The smallest quantity (packet) of energy that can be emitted or absorbed in the
A quantum of
form of electromagnetic radiation is called quantum. (Plural quanta) light is called
a photon
• The energy (E ) of a quantum of radiation is proportional to its frequency (n )
Eαn E = hn h =Planck’s constant and has the
value 6.626×10-34J s.
• A body can emit or absorb energy only in terms of integral multiple of hn
E=nhn n=0,1,2,3,. . . . . .
Energy is
quantized
Quantization of Energy
• The restriction of any property to discrete values
is called quantization
• Quantisation can be compared to standing on a
staircase.
• A person can stand on any step of a staircase,
but it is not possible for him/her to stand in
between the two steps.
• The energy can take any one of the values from
the following set, but cannot take on any values
With Quantum theory, Planck was able to
between them. explain the distribution of intensity in the
radiation from black body as a function of
• E = 0, hu, 2hu, 3hu....nhu.....
frequency or wavelength at different
temperatures.
Photoelectric Effect
• Studies in 1887, by H. Hertz .
• Ejection of electrons from certain metals( for example potassium,
rubidium, caesium etc.) when light of suitable frequency falls on it, is
called Photoelectric effect.

• Light of a particular frequency

strikes a clean metal surface
inside a vacuum chamber.
• Electrons are ejected from the
metal and are counted by a
detector that measures their
kinetic energy.
Observations of photoelectric experiment:
• (i) The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam of
light strikes the surface, i.e., there is no time lag between the striking of
light beam and the ejection of electrons from the metal surface.
• (ii) The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or
brightness of light.
• (iii) For each metal, there is a characteristic minimum frequency,n0 (also
known as threshold frequency) below which photoelectric effect is not
observed. At a frequency n >n 0, the ejected electrons come out with
certain kinetic energy. The kinetic energies of these electrons increase with
the increase of frequency of the light used.
Photoelectric Effect
• All the above results could not be explained on the basis of laws of classical
physics(wave theory)
• According to classical physics, the energy of the beam of light depends upon the
brightness(intensity) of the light.
• In other words, number of electrons ejected and kinetic energy associated with
them should depend on the brightness of light.
• But experiment it is verified that the number of electrons ejected does depend
upon the brightness of light, but the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons does
not.
• Kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depends on frequency of incident light.
• For example, red light [n = (4.3 to 4.6) × 1014 Hz] of any brightness (intensity)
may shine on a piece of potassium metal for hours but no photoelectrons are
ejected.
• But, as soon as even a very weak yellow light (n = 5.1–5.2 × 1014 Hz) shines on
Plots based on Observations of Photoelectric Effect
Explanation of Photoelectric Effect
• Einstein (1905) explained the photoelectric effect using Planck’s quantum theory of
electromagnetic radiation
• He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric
effect.
• When a photon of sufficient energy strikes an electron in the atom of the metal, it
transfers its energy instantaneously to the electron during the collision and the electron
is ejected without any time lag or delay.
• Greater the energy possessed by the photon, greater will be transfer of energy to the
electron and greater the kinetic energy of the ejected electron.
• In other words, kinetic energy of the ejected electron is proportional to the frequency of
the electromagnetic radiation.
Explanation of Photoelectric Effect
The energy of striking photon = hn
The minimum energy required to eject the electron = hn0 (also called work

function, W0)

If hn > hn0

the kinetic energy of the photoelectron, =

According to Conservation of energy principle

=mass of electron and =velocity of ejected electron

A more intense beam of light consists of larger number of photons,
consequently the number of electrons ejected is also larger as compared to a
beam of weaker intensity of light .
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Dual Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Numerical based on photoelectric effect and
Planck’s equation
• Emission and absorption spectra

By:- Vinod Kumar

Dual Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Black body radiation and photoelectric effect - Particle nature of electromagnetic radiation or light
• Interference and diffraction - wave nature of electromagnetic radiation or light
• Light possesses both particle and wave-like properties, i.e., light has dual behaviour.
• Whenever radiation interacts with matter, it displays particle like properties
• And when radiation propagates , it exhibits wave like properties
E= hn Planck’s equation; E= mc2 Einstein equation;

p ,momentum, is is the
the characteristic characteristic
of particle of wave
Problem 2.6
Calculate energy of one mole of photons of radiation whose frequency
is Hz.
Solution
Energy (E) of one photon E = hn
h = 6.626 ×10–34 J s
n = 5×1014 s–1 (given)
E = (6.626 ×10–34 J s) × (5 ×1014 s–1)
= 3.313 ×10–19 J
Energy of one mole of photons
= (3.313 ×10–19 J) × (6.022 × 1023 mol–
)=19.951 × 104 J
1

= 199.51 kJ mol–1
Problem 2.7
A 100 watt bulb emits monochromatic light of wavelength 400 nm. Calculate the
number of photons emitted per second by the bulb.
Solution
Power of the bulb = 100 watt = 100 J s-1
Energy of one photon E = hn =
h = 6.626 ×10–34 J s c= 3 × 108 m s-1 =400 nm = 400
× 10-9 m

Number of photons emitted

Problem 2.8
When electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 300 nm falls on the surface of
sodium, electrons are emitted with a kinetic energy of . What is the minimum
energy needed to remove an electron from sodium? What is the maximum
wavelength that will cause a photoelectron to be emitted?
Solution
The energy (E) of a 300 nm photon E =
h = 6.626 ×10–34 J s c= 3 × 108 m s-1 =300 nm =
300 × 10-9 m

Energy of one mole of photons

= (6.626 ×10–19 J) × (6.022 × 1023 mol–1)=39.9 × 104 J
=3.99 × 105 J mol-1
 Solution of Problem 2.8 continue….

We know, mol-1

The minimum energy for one electron

This corresponds to the wavelength,
Problem 2.9
The threshold frequency n0 for a metal is . Calculate the kinetic energy of an
electron emitted when radiation of frequency n = hits the metal.
Solution
According to Einstein’s equation , =
Visible spectrum
• When a ray of white light is passed through a prism, white light is spread out into a series of
coloured bands , this band is called visible spectrum.

• The wave with shorter wavelength bends more than the one with a longer wavelength
• The light of red colour which has longest wavelength is deviated the least while the violet
light, which has shortest wavelength is deviated the most.
• The spectrum of white light, that we can see, ranges from violet at to red at .
• Such a spectrum is called continuous spectrum.
• Continuous because violet merges into indigo, indigo into blue, blue into green and so on.
• A similar spectrum is produced when a rainbow forms in the sky
 Spectrum-singular
Atomic Spectra Spectra-plural

• The range of characteristic frequencies of electromagnetic radiation that are readily absorbed and emitted
by an atom.
Emission spectrum
• The spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has absorbed energy is called an
emission spectrum.
• When electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter, atoms and molecules may absorb
energy and reach to a higher energy state. With higher energy, these are in an unstable
state.
• For returning to their normal (more stable, lower energy states) energy state, the atoms and
molecules emit radiations in various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The spectrum
of these emitted radiation is called emission spectrum
• Atoms, molecules or ions that have absorbed radiation are said to be “excited”.
• To produce an emission spectrum, energy is supplied to a sample by heating it or irradiating
it and the wavelength (or frequency) of the radiation emitted is recorded.
Absorption spectrum
• A spectrum of electromagnetic radiation transmitted through a substance, showing dark lines
or bands due to absorption at specific wavelengths is known as absorption spectrum.
• An absorption spectrum is like the photographic negative of an emission
spectrum.
• Absorption spectrum is the missing wavelength which corresponds to the radiation absorbed by the
matter, leave dark spaces in the bright continuous spectrum
Spectroscopy
• The study of emission or absorption spectra is referred to as spectroscopy.

Line spectra:-
• The emission or absorption spectra of atoms in the gas phase do not show a continuous
spread of wavelength rather they emit light only at specific wavelengths with dark
spaces between them.
• Such spectra are called line spectra or atomic spectra because the emitted radiation is
identified by the appearance of bright or dark lines in the spectra.
Importance of Line emission spectra
• Line emission spectra are of great interest in the study of electronic structure.
• Each element has a unique line emission spectrum.
• The characteristic lines in atomic spectra can be used in chemical analysis to
identify unknown atoms in the same way as fingerprints are used to identify
people
• German chemist, Robert Bunsen (1811-1899) was one of the first investigators to
use line spectra to identify elements.
• Elements like rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs) thallium (Tl), indium (In), gallium (Ga)
and scandium (Sc) were discovered when their minerals were analysed by
spectroscopic methods.
• The element helium (He) was discovered in the sun by spectroscopic method.
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
• Bohr’s Model For Hydrogen Atom
By:- Vinod Kumar
Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
• When an electric discharge is passed through gaseous hydrogen, the H2 molecules
dissociate and the energetically excited hydrogen atoms produced emit
electromagnetic radiation of discrete frequencies.
• The hydrogen spectrum consists of several series of lines named after their
discoverers.
• Balmer, in 1885, observed spectral lines in visible part and expressed in terms of
wavenumber ( ), which obey the following formula:
• where n is an integer equal to or greater than 3 (i.e., n = 3,4,5,....)
• The Swedish spectroscopist, J. Rydberg, notedThe
thatvalue 109,677
all series cm–1inisthe
of lines called
hydrogen
spectrum could be described by the followingthe
expression :
Rydberg constant for hydrogen

• where n1=1,2........

• n2 = n1 + 1, n1 + 2......
Problem:-
What is the maximum number of emission lines
when the excited electron of a H atom in n = 6
drops to the ground state?
Solution:-
Maximum number of spectral lines=
• Of all the elements, hydrogen
atom has the simplest line
spectrum.
• Line spectrum becomes more and
more complex for heavier atom.
• Features which are common to all
line spectra are:
• (i) line spectrum of element is
unique and
• (ii) there is regularity in the
line spectrum of each element.
BOHR’S MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM
• Neils Bohr (1913) was the first to explain quantitatively the general features of the
structure of hydrogen atom and its spectrum. He used Planck’s concept of quantisation
of energy.
• Bohr’s model for hydrogen atom is based on the following postulates:
1) The electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the nucleus in a circular path
of fixed radius and energy. These paths are called orbits, stationary states or
allowed energy states or shells. These orbits are arranged concentrically around
the nucleus.
Continue………..
BOHR’S MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM
2) The energy of an electron in the orbit does not change with time. The
energy change takes place when electron moves from one orbit to
another. Energy is absorbed when electron will move from a lower
stationary state to a higher stationary state or energy is emitted when
electron moves from higher stationary state to lower stationary state .
The energy change does not take place in a continuous manner.
Continue………..
BOHR’S MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM
3) The frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted when transition occurs between
two stationary states that differ in energy by DE, is given
Thisby:
expression is
commonly known as
Bohr’s frequency rule.
Where =Energy of lower energy state and =Energy of the higher allowed energy
states

4) An electron can move only in those orbits for which its angular momentum is
integral multiple of h/2p. That means angular momentum is quantised.

Where me =mass of electron, v= velocity and r = radius of the orbit in which electron
is moving.
Features of Bohr’s Model of atom
1) The stationary states for electron are numbered n = 1,2,3.......... These integral numbers are known as
Principal quantum numbers.
2) The radii of the stationary states are expressed as : Thus the radius of the
first stationary state
rn = n2 a0 where a0 = 52.9 pm. (n=1), called the Bohr
orbit, is 52.9 pm.
3) The energy of stationary state is given by the expression.
RH is called Rydberg constant (2.18×10–18 J) n-Principal quantum number
The energy of the lowest state(n=1), also called as the ground state, is

The energy of the stationary state for n = 2, will be :

What does the negative electronic energy (En) for hydrogen atom mean?
• This negative sign means that the energy of the electron in the atom is lower
than the energy of a free electron at rest.
• A free electron at rest is an electron that is infinitely far away from the nucleus
and is assigned the energy value of zero.
• Mathematically, this corresponds to n=¥ so that E¥=0.
• As the electron gets closer to the nucleus (as n decreases), the energy is emitted
and its energy is lowered and En becomes larger in absolute value and more and
more negative. The negative sign depicts its stability relative to the reference
state of zero energy and n = ¥.
• The most negative energy value is given by n=1 which corresponds to the most
stable orbit.
• We call this the ground state.
Continue….
Features of Bohr’s Model of atom
4) Bohr’s theory can also be applied to the hydrogen like species For example, He+
Li2+, Be3+ and so on.

Z= atomic number
5) It is also possible to calculate the velocities of electrons moving in these orbits.
• Qualitatively the magnitude of velocity of electron increases with increase of
positive charge on the nucleus and decreases with increase of principal
quantum number.
Explanation of Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
• Energy is absorbed if the electron moves from the orbit of smaller Principal
quantum number to the orbit of higher Principal quantum number,
• whereas the energy is emitted if the electron moves from higher orbit to lower
orbit.
The energy gap between the two orbits is given :-
The frequency (n ) associated with the absorption and emission of the photon

and in terms of wavenumbers ( )

• In case of absorption spectrum, and the term in the parenthesis is positive and energy is
absorbed.
• On the other hand in case of emission spectrum , D E is negative and energy is released.
Problem 2.10
What are the frequency and wavelength of a photon emitted during a transition from n =
5 state
to the n = 2 state in the hydrogen atom?
Solution:-
Since this transition gives rise to a spectral line in the visible region of the Balmer series.

Negative sign indicates that light is emitted but frequency can not be negative so use only magnitude
 There is only one electron
in H atom, then why large
number of spectral lines in
H spectrum ?

• Each spectral line can be associated to the particular transition in hydrogen

atom.
• In a sample of Hydrogen gas large number of hydrogen atoms are present
and different possible transitions can be observed and thus leading to large
number of spectral lines.
• The brightness or intensity of spectral lines depends upon the number of
photons of same wavelength or frequency absorbed or emitted.
Problem 2.11
Calculate the energy associated with the first orbit of . What is the radius of this
orbit?
Solution:-
Energy

For , n=1 and Z=2

Radius
Limitations of Bohr’s Model
• It fails to account for the finer details (doublet, that is two closely spaced lines) of the
hydrogen atom spectrum observed by using sophisticated spectroscopic
techniques.
• This model is also unable to explain the spectrum of atoms other than hydrogen for
example, helium atom which possesses only two electrons.
• Bohr’s theory was also unable to explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of
magnetic field (Zeeman effect) or an electric field (Stark effect).
• It could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds.
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Dual behaviour of matter,
• Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

By:- Vinod Kumar

Dual Behaviour of Matter
• The French physicist, de Broglie, in 1924 proposed that matter, like radiation,
should also exhibit dual behaviour i.e., both particle and wave like properties.
• This means that just as the photon has momentum as well as wavelength,
electrons should also have momentum as well as wavelength,
• de Broglie equation for material particle
m = mass of the particle, v = velocity of particle , p = momentum , l= wavelength
of a particle.
• Wave nature of electron:-electron beam undergoes diffraction, a phenomenon
characteristic of waves. Making of an electron microscope is based on the
wavelike behaviour of electrons just as an ordinary microscope utilises the wave
nature of light.
• Electron microscope gives magnification of about 15 million times
 Differences Between Electromagnetic waves and Matter Waves
Electromagnetic waves Matter Waves

These waves have electric and magnetic fields Matter waves have no electric and magnetic fields
associated with them. associated with them.

These waves can easily pass through the vacuum These waves cannot pass through the vacuum.

These waves travel with the same speed of Matter waves have different speeds .
3 x 108 m/s

Wavelengths of these waves can be measured Their wavelengths cannot be measured easily.
easily.

These rays are emitted from a source in space. These waves are associated with material
particles, they do not exist without material
particles.
• According to de Broglie, every object in motion has a wave character.
• The wavelengths associated with ordinary objects (macroscopic) are so short
(because of their large masses) that their wave properties cannot be detected.
Problem 2.12
What will be the wavelength of a ball of mass 0.1 kg moving with a velocity of 10 m
s–1 ?
Solution:-
According to de Brogile equation
h = 6.626 ×10–34 J s m=0.1 kg v=10 m s –1
1J=
Problem 2.13
The mass of an electron is . If its K.E. is , calculate its wavelength.
Solution:-
Since K. E.
h = 6.626 ×10–
34
Js
Problem 2.14
Calculate the mass of a photon with wavelength 3.6 Å.
Solution:-
l = 3.6 Å = 3.6 × 10–10 m Velocity of photon = velocity of light
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
• It is impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact position and exact
momentum (or velocity) of an electron. Dx = uncertainty in position
• Mathematically Dp = uncertainty in
momentum
Dv = uncertainty in velocity
m= Mass of particle

• If the position of the electron is known with high degree of accuracy (Dx is
small), then the velocity of the electron will be uncertain [Dv is large].
• On the other hand, if the velocity of the electron is known precisely (Dv is
small), then the position of the electron will be uncertain (Dx will be large).
Example to understand The uncertainty principle
• Suppose you are asked to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper with an
unmarked meter stick. Obviously, the results obtained would be extremely
inaccurate and meaningless.
• In order to obtain any accuracy, you should use an instrument graduated in units
smaller than the thickness of a sheet of the paper.
• Similarly , in order to determine the position of an electron, we must use “light” or
h h
electromagnetic radiation.
λ= =
• The “light” used must have a wavelength smaller than the dimensions of an m 𝑐 p
electron.
• The smaller wavelength photon have high momentum.
• The high momentum photons of such light would change the energy of electrons
by collisions.
• In this way we would know very little about the velocity of the electron after the
A high frequency (short
wavelength) photon gives a
more accurate
measurement of position,
but it causes a greater
uncertainty in the
momentum
Significance of Uncertainty Principle
• It rules out existence of definite paths or trajectories of
The trajectory of an
electrons and other similar particles.
object is determined by
• The effect of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is significant
its location and velocity
only for motion of microscopic objects and is negligible for
at various moments
that of macroscopic objects.
If uncertainty principle is applied to an object of mass 1 milligram
(10–6 kg), then

The value of DvDx obtained is extremely small and is insignificant

If uncertainty principle is applied for an electron whose mass is 9.11×10–31 kg.,

If exact location of the electron is to an uncertainty of only 10 –8 m, then the uncertainty

Dv in velocity would be

which is so large that the classical picture of electrons moving in Bohr’s orbits (fixed)
cannot hold good.
Problem 2.15
A microscope using suitable photons is employed to locate an electron in an
atom within a distance of 0.1 Å. What is the uncertainty involved in the
measurement of its velocity?
Solution
Problem 2.16
A golf ball has a mass of 40g, and a speed of 45 m/s. If the speed can be measured
within accuracy of 2%, calculate the uncertainty in the position.
Solution
The uncertainty in the speed is 2%, i.e.,
m = 40 g =
According to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Reasons for the Failure of the Bohr Model
• It did not considered the wave character of electron i.e. ignores dual behaviour of
matter
• It contradicts Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Quantum Mechanical Model Of Atom
• Quantum Numbers
By:- Vinod Kumar
QUANTUM MECHANICS
• The branch of science that takes into account the dual behaviour of matter is called quantum mechanics.
• Quantum mechanics is a theoretical science that deals with the study of the motions of
the microscopic objects that have both observable wave like and particle like
properties.
• Quantum mechanics was developed independently in 1926 by Werner Heisenberg and
Erwin Schrödinger.
• The fundamental equation of quantum mechanics was developed by Schrödinger and it
won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933.
• Simplest form of Schrödinger equation :- where Ψ (psi)=
wave function
E= total energy of the system, = mathematical operator called
Hamiltonian
Hydrogen Atom and the Schrödinger Equation
• When Schrödinger equation is solved for hydrogen atom, the solution
gives the possible energy levels the electron can occupy and the
corresponding wave function(s) (y) of the electron associated with each
energy level.
• wave functions describe the orbitals which are characterized by a set of
three quantum numbers (principal quantum number n, azimuthal
quantum number l and magnetic quantum number )
Important Features of the Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
1. The energy of electrons in atoms is quantized (i.e., can only have certain specific
values).
2. The existence of quantized electronic energy levels is a direct result of the wave like
properties of electrons and are allowed solutions of Schrödinger wave equation.
3. Both the exact position and exact velocity of an electron in an atom cannot be
determined simultaneously. only probability of finding the electron at different points in
an atom is considered.
4. An atomic orbital is the wave function y for an electron in an atom. Whenever an
electron is described by a wave function, we say that the electron occupies that orbital.
5. The probability of finding an electron at a point within an atom is proportional to the
square of the orbital wave function i.e., |y|2 at that point. |y|2 is known as probability
density and is always positive. From the value of |y|2 at different points within an
atom, it is possible to predict the region around the nucleus where electron will most
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
• Orbitals are described by a set of 3 quantum numbers which are obtained from the solution of
the Schrödinger equation. These are
• Principal quantum number, n
• Azimuthal quantum number, l
• Magnetic orbital quantum number. ‘ml’
• To describe an electron one more quantum number is required which is not
obtained from the Schrödinger equation. This is
• Electron spin quantum number (ms).
The principal quantum number ‘n’
• It is a positive integer with value of n = 1,2,3.......
• The principal quantum number determines the size and to large extent the energy of
the orbital.
• For hydrogen atom and hydrogen like species (, .... etc.) energy and size of the orbital
depends only on ‘n’.
• The principal quantum number also identifies the shell and are represented by the
following letters
n = 1 2 3 4 ............
Shell = K L M N ............
• With the increase in the value of ‘n’, the number of allowed orbital increases and are
given by ‘n2’
• The energy of the orbital will increase with increase of n.
• The maximum number of electron in a shell =
Azimuthal quantum number ‘l’
• It is also known as orbital angular momentum or subsidiary quantum number.
• It defines the three-dimensional shape of the orbital.
• It identifies sub-shells or sub-levels in a given shell.
• The number of sub-shells in a principal shell is equal to the value of n.
• The possible value of l are : l = 0, 1, 2, .......... (n–1)
• Sub-shells corresponding to different values of l are represented by the following symbols.
• Maximum number of
electrons in a given sub-
shell= 2(2l+1)
Shape:-
s-Spherical
p- Dumbbell
d-Double dumbbell
f-complicated
 Quantum Numbers
Principal Azimuthal quantum number (l)
Quantum No.
(n)
Value Notation No. of Value for Notation No. of No. of electrons
of Shell subshell=value subshell of sub- electrons in a in the shell 2n2
of n 0 to (n-1) shell sub-shell
2(2l+1)
n=1 K 1 0 1s 2 2
n=2 L 2 0 2s 2 8
1 2p 6
n=3 M 3 0 3s 2 18
1 3p 6
2 3d 10
n= 4 N 4 0 4s 2 32
1 4p 6
2 4d 10
3 4f 14
Magnetic orbital quantum number. ‘’
• It gives information about the spatial orientation of the orbital with respect
to standard set of co-ordinate axis.
• Number of orbitals in a given sub-shell = 2l+1
• Values of given by : = – l,... 0,….. +l
• Maximum number of electron in an orbital =2
• Number of orbitals in a given shell= n2

• Each orbital in an atom is defined

by a set of values for n, l and ml.
• An orbital described by the
quantum numbers n = 2, l = 1, ml
= 0 is an orbital in the p sub-shell
of the second shell
Electron spin quantum number ()
• In 1925, George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit proposed the presence of the
fourth quantum number known as the electron spin quantum number (ms).
• An electron spins around its own axis.
• Spin angular momentum of the electron — a vector quantity, can have two
orientations relative to the chosen axis.
• These two orientations are represented by the spin quantum numbers ms which can
take the values of
+½ or –½.
• These are called the two spin states of the electron and are normally represented by
two arrows, ↑ (spin up) and ¯ (spin down).
• Two electrons that have different ms values (one +½ and the other –½) are said to
have opposite spins.
• An orbital cannot hold more than two electrons and these two electrons should have
No. of subshell in a shell= Value of n
No. of Orbitals in a shell = n2
No. of orbitals in a subshell=(2l+1)

No. of electrons in an orbital=2

No. of electrons in subshell=2(2l+1)
No. of electrons in a shell= 2n2

Values
For n=1, 2, 3, 4
For l= 0 to (n-1)
For ml= -l… 0…+l
For ms= +½ or –½
Problem 2.17
What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum
number n = 3 ?
Solution:- No. of orbitals in a shell =n2 = 32= 9
n=3, No. of subshells =3 3s, 3p and 3d
No. of orbitals in subshell (2l+1)
Subshell 3s 3p 3d
No. of orbitals 1 3 5 hence total no. of orbitals if
n=3 = 1+3+5=9
Problem 2.18
Using s, p, d, f notations, describe the orbital with the following quantum
numbers
(a) n = 2, l = 1, Ans:- 2p
(b)n = 4, l = 0, Ans:- 4s
(c) n = 5, l = 3, Ans:- 5f
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
• Boundary surface diagrams of s, p and d-orbitals

By:- Vinod Kumar

Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
• The orbital wave function or y for an electron in an atom has no physical
meaning.
• It is simply a mathematical function of the coordinates of the electron.
• For different orbitals the plots of corresponding wave functions as a function of r
(the distance from the nucleus) are different.
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
• According to the German physicist, Max Born, the square of the wave function (i.e.,y2) at a
point gives the probability density of the electron at that point.

• For 1s orbital the probability density is maximum at the nucleus and it decreases sharply as
we move away from it.
• On the other hand, for 2s orbital the probability density first decreases sharply to zero and
again starts increasing. After reaching a small maxima it decreases again and approaches
zero as the value of r increases further.
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals- charge cloud diagrams
• The region where this probability density function reduces to zero is called nodal
surfaces or nodes.
• In general, ns-orbital has (n – 1) nodes.
• Number of nodes increases with increase of principal quantum number n.
• In other words, number of nodes for 2s orbital is one, two for 3s and so on.
• These probability density variation can be visualised in terms of charge cloud
diagrams.
• In these diagrams, the density of the dots in a region represents electron probability
density in that region.
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals- Boundary surface diagrams
• These give a fairly good representation of the shapes of the orbitals.
• A boundary surface or outline surface is drawn in space for an orbital on which the
value of probability density |y|2 is constant.
• A boundary surface diagram of an orbital represents the shape of the orbital which
encloses a region or volume in which the probability of finding the electron is very
high, say, 90%.
• Boundary surface diagram for a s orbital is actually a sphere centred on the nucleus.
In two dimensions, this sphere looks like a circle.
• All the s-orbitals are spherically symmetric, that is, the probability of finding the
electron at a given distance is equal in all the directions.
• It is also observed that the size of the s orbital increases with increase in n, that is, 4s
> 3s > 2s > 1s
Boundary surface diagrams for s-
orbitals
 Boundary surface diagrams for p orbitals
• Number of orbitals in p subshell is three. values for p orbitals are -1,
0 and +1
• These are represented as . The size, shape and energy of the three orbitals are
identical.
• Each p orbital consists of two sections called lobes that are on either
side of the plane that passes through the nucleus. Lobes are oriented
along the x, y or z axis.
order of the
• The shape of p orbital is dumbbell shape
energy and size
of various p
orbitals is
4p > 3p > 2p
Boundary surface diagrams for d orbitals
Number of orbitals in d subshell is five. values for d orbitals are -2, -1, 0 , +1
and +2
These five d orbitals are represented as
All five d orbitals are equivalent in energy
Four of the five d orbitals are cloverleaf shaped or double dumbbell shape
Simple way to draw shapes of five 3d orbitals
 Nodes in p and d orbitals:-
Radial nodes =(n-l-1)
Angular nodes= value of l Angular nodes in d
• Angular nodes are at the orbitals
Radial nodes are plane (s), passing through the In case of dxy orbital,
along the distance nucleus (origin). there are two nodal
from the nucleus • For example, in case of pz planes passing through
orbital, xy-plane is a nodal the origin and bisecting
plane the xy plane containing
z-axis.

Total Number of nodes=(n-l-1) +l =(n-1)

 Differences Between Orbits and Orbitals
Orbits Orbitals

Given by Bohr Obtained form the solution of Schrödinger

equation
Orbits represent the planner motion of the Orbitals represent the three dimensional
electron motion of the electron

All orbits are circular in shape They are different in shapes from each other

It is a well defined path that revolving electrons It is a region of space around a nucleus where
follow around a nucleus probability of finding a electron is maximum

The orbits concept does not satisfy the The orbitals concept completely compiles with
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle the Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle

Maximum number of electrons in an orbit is 2n2 Maximum two electrons can be present in an
orbital
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Energies of Orbitals
• Filling of Orbitals in Atom
• Aufbau Principle
• Pauli Exclusion Principle
• Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
• (n + l ) rule

By:- Vinod Kumar

Energies of Orbitals in Hydrogen Atom(Uni-electron
system)
• The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom is determined only by
the principal quantum number.
• Thus the energy of the orbitals in hydrogen atom increases as
follows :
1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d <4s = 4p = 4d = 4f <
• The orbitals having the same energy are called degenerate.
• The 1s orbital in a hydrogen atom corresponds to the most stable
condition and is called the ground state and an electron residing in
this orbital is most strongly held by the nucleus.
• An electron in the 2s, 2p or higher orbitals in a hydrogen atom is in
excited state.
Energy level diagram for hydrogen
atom
The energy of an electron in a multielectron atom
• The energy of an electron in a multielectron atom depends not only on its principal
quantum number (shell), but also on its azimuthal quantum number (subshell).
• That is, for a given principal quantum number, s, p, d, f ... all have different
energies.
• The main reason for having different energies of the subshells is the mutual
repulsion among the electrons in multielectron atoms.

Shielding Effect:-
• Due to the presence of electrons in the inner shells, the electron in the outer shell
will not experience the full positive charge of the nucleus (Ze).
• The effect will be lowered due to the partial screening of positive charge on the
nucleus by the inner shell electrons. This is known as the shielding effect .
• The net positive charge experienced by the outer electrons is known as effective
nuclear charge (Zeff e).
 (n + l ) rule
• The lower the value of (n + l) for an orbital, the lower is its energy. If two
orbitals have the same value of (n + l), the orbital with lower value of n will

Orbital have the1s

lower
2s energy.
2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 5f 6s
Value of n 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6
Value of l 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0
(n+l) 1 2 3 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 5 6 7 8 6

• Increasing order of energies:- 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d
< 5p < 6s < 4f
• Energies of the orbitals in the same subshell decrease with increase in the
atomic number
• For example, energy of 2s orbital of hydrogen atom is greater than that of 2s
orbital of lithium and that of lithium is greater than that of sodium and so on,
Filling of Orbitals in Atom
• The filling of electrons into the orbitals of different atoms takes place according to the
Aufbau principle which is based on the
• Pauli’s exclusion principle,
• Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity and
• the relative energies of the orbitals (n+l) rule.

Aufbau Principle
• “In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing
energies.”
• In other words, electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available to them and
enter into higher energy orbitals only after the lower energy orbitals are filled.
Order of
increasing
energy of the
orbitals in a
multielectron
atom
Pauli Exclusion Principle
• “No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum
numbers.”
• Pauli exclusion principle can also be stated as : “Only two electrons may exist
in the same orbital and these electrons must have opposite spin.”
• This means that the two electrons can have the same value of three quantum
numbers n, l and , but must have the opposite spin quantum number

• For example:- Hydrogen Z=1, Electronic Configuration:- 1s1 n=1, l=0, = 0, =

+ ½ or – ½
• Helium Z=2, Electronic configuration:- 1s2

• Set of quantum number for first electron:- n=1, l=0, = 0, = + ½

• Set of quantum number for second electron:- n=1, l=0, = 0, = – ½

Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
• Pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell (p, d or f) does
not take place until each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron
each i.e., it is singly occupied.
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Electronic Configuration of Atoms and Ions
• Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled Subshells

By:- Vinod Kumar

Electronic Configuration of Atoms
The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom is called its
electronic configuration.
The electronic configuration of different atoms can be represented in two
ways.
For example :
 Electronic Configuration of
Atoms
• the subshell is represented by the respective letter symbol and the number of
electrons present in the subshell is depicted, as the super script, like a, b, c, ... etc.
• The similar subshell represented for different shells is differentiated by writing the
principal quantum number before the respective subshell.
• For example N Z=7 1s2 2s2 2p3

• each orbital of the subshell is represented by a box and the electron is represented
by an arrow (↑­) a positive spin or an arrow (¯) a negative spin.
• The advantage of this notation over the first one is that it represents all the four
quantum numbers.
 Electronic Configurations of the some
Elements
Element Symbol Atomic Electronic Configuration
Number
Hydrogen H 1 1s1
Helium He 2 1s2
Lithium Li 3 1s2 2s1
Beryllium Be 4 1s2 2s2
Boron B 5 1s2 2s2 2p1
Carbon C 6 1s2 2s2 2p2
Nitrogen N 7 1s2 2s2 2p3
Oxygen O 8 1s2 2s2 2p4
Fluorine F 9 1s2 2s2 2p5
Neon Ne 10 1s2 2s2 2p6
 Continue….
Electronic Configurations of the some
Elements
Element Symbol Atomic Number Electronic Configuration
Sodium Na 11 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 OR [Ne] 3s1
The electrons in the
Magnesium Mg 12 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 OR [Ne] 3s2 completely filled
Aluminium Al 13 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 OR [Ne] 3s2 3p1 shells are
known as core
Silicon Si 14 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 OR [Ne] 3s23p2 electrons
Phosphorus P 15 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 OR [Ne] 3s2 3p3
The electrons in the
Sulphur S 16 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 4
OR [Ne] 3s 3p
2 4
electronic shell with
Chlorine Cl 17 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 OR [Ne] 3s2 3p5 the
Argon Ar 18 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 OR [Ne] 3s2 3p6 highest principal
quantum number
Potassium K 19 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 OR [Ar] 4s1 are called valence
Calcium Ca 20 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 OR [Ar] 4s2 electrons.
 Continue….
Electronic Configurations of the some
ElementsSymbol Atomic Electronic Configuration
Element
Number

Scandium Sc 21 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2

Titanium Ti 22 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
Vanadium V 23 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2 Exception:-Cr & Cu
Chromium Cr 24 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 Reason:- fully filled
Manganese Mn 25 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2 Subshells and half-
Iron Fe 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 filled Subshells have
Cobalt Co 27 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2 extra stability

Nickel Ni 28 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2

Copper Cu 29 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
Zinc Zn 30 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2
Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled Subshells
• The completely filled and completely half-filled subshells are stable due to the following
reasons:
1) Symmetrical distribution of electrons:
• It is well known that symmetry leads to stability.
• The completely filled or half filled subshells have symmetrical distribution of
electrons in them and are therefore more stable.
2) Exchange Energy :
• The two or more electrons with the same spin are present in the degenerate
orbitals of a subshell tend to exchange their positions and the energy released due
to this exchange is called exchange energy.
• The number of exchanges that can take place is maximum when the subshell is
either half filled or completely filled .As a result the exchange energy is maximum
and so is the stability.
Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled
Subshells
Electronic Configurations of the ions
1s2 H 1s1

1s2 2s2 2p6 O 1s2 2s2 2p4

1s2 2s2 2p6 Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Isoelectronic species:-
Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 Species have same
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
number of electrons
Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 e.g. ,
Sc 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
2 2 6 2 6 1 2

Sc3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 (10 electrons)

Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
Cr3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3
Fe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2

Fe2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6

Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

Cu2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9

What is the utility of knowing the electron configuration?
• The modern approach to the chemistry depends almost entirely on electronic
distribution to understand and explain chemical behaviour.
• For example, questions like
• why two or more atoms combine to form molecules,
• why some elements are metals while others are nonmetals,
• why elements like helium and argon are not reactive but elements like the
halogens are reactive
• Explanations of these types of question are obtained from the electronic
configuration
Q.2.18.What is the energy in joules, required to shift the electron of the hydrogen atom
from the first Bohr orbit to the fifth Bohr orbit and what is the wavelength of the light
emitted when the electron returns to the ground state? The ground state electron energy
is ergs.
Solution:- 1 erg = 10−7 Joule
Ground state energy (E1) = – 2.18 × 10 ergs (given)
–11

= –2.18 × 10–11 × 10–7 J

= – 2.18 × 10–18 J
Energy in fifth orbit ,

energy required to shift the electron from n = 1 to n = 5 is given as ΔE = E 5 – E1 c=

ΔE =(

Alternatively
2.33 What transition in the hydrogen spectrum would have the same wavelength
as the
Balmer transition n = 4 to n = 2 of He+ spectrum ?
Solution:-

For He+ , Z=2

Negative sign indicates
that energy is released
but can not be negative so
Now For H atom Z=1

This equation can only be true when

The transition of electron from n = 2 to n = 1 in Hydrogen would have the same
wavelength as transition of electron from n = 4 to n = 1 in He +
2.34 Calculate the energy required for the process

The ionization energy for the H atom in the ground state is

Solution:-
Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove the electron form n=1 to n=
In other words is the energy of an electron in H atom in first orbit as at infinite energy is zero
For Z= 2 and n=1
Ionisation energy =