Introduction to computer
engineering
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS AND COMPUTER ETHICS
ISTUN FALL 2022
Historical Development
• In modern times computer evolution is usually classified into four
generations according to the salient technology of the era.
Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642–
1945)
The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–1953) 26
• Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) o John Mauchly and J.
Presper Eckert, University of Pennsylvania, introduced to the public in 1946
o The first all-electronic, general-purpose digital computer.
o This machine used 17,468 vacuum tubes, occupied 1,800 square feet of
floor space, weighted 30 tons, and consumed 174 kilowatts of power.
• Vacuum tubes are still used in audio amplifiers.
The Second Generation: Transistorized Computers (1954–1965) 30
• In 1948, three researchers with Bell Laboratories – John Bardeen, Walter
Brattain, and William Shockley – invented the transistor.
• Transistors consume less power than vacuum tubes, are smaller, and work
more reliably.
The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers (1965–1980) 31
• Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit (IC) or microchip.
• Integrated Circuit: Multiple transistor were integrated onto on chip
• IBM 360
• DEC PDP-8 and PDP-11
• The Cray-1, in stark contrast to the CDC 6600, could execute over 160
million instructions per second and could support 8 megabytes of memory.
The Fourth Generation: VLSI Computers (1980–????)
• VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration): more than 10,000 components per chip.
• ENIAC-on-a-chip project, 1997
• VLSI allowed Intel, in 1971, to create the world’s first microprocessor, the 4004, which was a fully
functional, 4-bit system that ran at 108KHz.
• Intel also introduced the random access memory (RAM) chip, accommodating 4 kilobits of memory on a
single chip.
Moore’s Law 35
• Visit o http://www.intel.com/about/companyinfo/museum/exhibits/moore.htm
o http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore's_law
• In 1965, Intel founder Gordon Moore stated, “The density of transistors in an integrated circuit will double
every year.”
• The current version of this prediction is usually conveyed as “the density of silicon chips doubles every 18
months.”
Computer Ethics, Privacy and Security
introducing some of the approaches to ethics that have
been proposed by philosophers in their search for
fundamental theories that lead to principles for guiding
decisions and behavior.
Computer Ethics, Privacy and Security
Most of these theories can be classified under the
headings of:
• consequence-based ethics,
• duty-based ethics,
• contract-based ethics,
• character-based ethics.
Computer Ethics, Privacy and Security
Consequence-based ethics
• Attempts to analyze issues based on the consequences of the various
options.
• Example is utilitarianism that proposes that the “correct” decision or
action is the one that leads to the greatest good for the largest portion of
society.
At first glance utilitarianism appears to be a fair way of resolving ethical
dilemmas.
• Disadvantage: utilitarianism leads to numerous unacceptable conclusions.
For example, it would allow the majority of a society to enslave a small
minority.
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Duty-based ethics
Does not consider the consequences of decisions and actions.
Proposes that members of a society have certain duties or obligations
that in turn form the foundation on which ethical questions should be
resolved.
Example, if one accepts the obligation to respect the rights of others,
then one must reject slavery regardless of its consequences.
Disadvantage it fails to provide solutions to problems involving
conflicting duties.
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Contract-based ethical theory
proposes that the members of the society would develop “contracts”
among themselves.
For example, I won’t steal from you if you won’t steal from me. In turn,
these “contracts” would become the foundation for determining ethical
behavior
Advantage: provides a motivation for ethical behavior—we should obey
the “contracts of ethics” because we would otherwise live an unpleasant
life
Disadvantage: provides guidance only in those cases in which contracts
have been established.
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Character-based ethics
promoted by Plato and Aristotle,
“good behavior” is not the result of applying identifiable rules but
instead is a natural consequence of “good character.”
character-based ethics proposes that dilemmas be resolved by asking,
“Who do I want to be?” Thus, good behavior is obtained by building
good character.
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Computer Ethics
Computers are involved in every aspect of our lives
perform life-critical tasks
Computer science does not have regulations book like medicine, air
travel, or construction zoning
Therefore, we need to carefully consider the issues of ethics.
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Computer Ethics
Ethics are standards of moral conduct
Standards of right and wrong behavior
Measure of personal integrity
The basis of trust and cooperation in relationships with others.
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Ethical Principals
Ethical principals are tools which are used to think through difficult
situations.
Three useful ethical principals:
An act is ethical if all of society benefits from the act.
An act is ethical if people are treated as an end and not as a means to an
end.
An act is ethical if it is fair to all parties involved.
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Ethics for Computer Professionals
Computer Professionals:
Are experts in their field,
Know customers rely on their knowledge, expertise, and honesty,
Understand their products (and related risks) affect many people,
Follow good professional standards and practices,
Maintain an expected level of competence and are up-to-date on
current knowledge and technology,
Educate the non-computer professional
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Computer Ethics
Four primary issues
Privacy – responsibility to protect data about individuals
Accuracy - responsibility of data collectors to authenticate
information and ensure its accuracy
Property - who owns information and software and how can they be
sold and exchanged
Access - responsibility of data collectors to control access and
determine what information a person has the right to obtain about
others and how the information can be used
