Computer Organization and Assembly
Language
By
Fehmida Sadaf Bhatti
2
Course Information
• Class Composition
Readings Term Project
Lectures
Quizzes Assignments
Course Information
• Assignments
On Time
Late Sub: -25%
No Copying
3
Semester Process
Assessment of a Course
Assessment Weightage Details
Mid-Semester Objective +
12
Exam Subjective
Practical
Practical 20
paper
Final
Objective +
Semester 20
Subjective
Exam
Quizzes,
Sessional
12 Assignments,
Marks
Presentation
Books
Textbook
Assembly Language for Intel-Based
Computers, 4th Edition, Kip Irvine
Reference
The Art of Assembly Language,
Randy Hyde
Michael Abrash' s Graphics
Programming Black Book, chap 1-22
Syllabus (topics we might cover)
• IA-32 Processor Architecture
• Assembly Language Fundamentals
• Data Transfers, Addressing, and Arithmetic
• Procedures
• Conditional Processing
• Integer Arithmetic
• Advanced Procedures
• Strings and Arrays
• Structures and Macros
• High-Level Language Interface
• BIOS Level Programming
• Real Arithmetic
• MMX
• Code Optimization
Chapter.1 Overview
• Virtual Machine Concept
• Data Representation
• Boolean Operations
Chapter.1 Introduction
Assembly programming
Assembly programming
mov eax, Y
add eax, 4 editor
mov ebx, 3
imul ebx
mov X, eax .asm
assembler debugger
.obj
.exe
linker loader
Virtual machines
Abstractions for computers
High-Level Language
• Level 5
• Application-oriented languages
• Programs compile into assembly
language (Level 4)
X:=(Y+4)*3
Assembly Language
• Level 4
• Instruction mnemonics that have a one-to-
one correspondence to machine language
• Calls functions written at the operating
system level (Level 3)
• Programs are translated into machine
language (Level 2)
mov eax, Y
add eax, 4
mov ebx, 3
imul ebx
mov X, eax
Operating System
• Level 3
• Provides services
• Programs translated and run at the
instruction set architecture level (Level 2)
Instruction Set Architecture
• Level 2
• Also known as conventional machine
language
• Executed by Level 1 program
(microarchitecture, Level 1)
Microarchitecture
• Level 1
• Interprets conventional machine
instructions (Level 2)
• Executed by digital hardware (Level 0)
Digital Logic
• Level 0
• CPU, constructed from digital logic gates
• System bus
• Memory
Data representation
• Computer is a construction of digital
circuits with two states: on and off
• You need to have the ability to translate
between different representations to
examine the content of the machine
• Common number systems: binary, octal,
decimal and hexadecimal
Binary numbers
• Digits are 1 and 0
(a binary digit is called a bit)
1 = true
0 = false
• MSB –most significant bit
• LSB –least significant bit
MSB LSB
• Bit numbering:
1011001010011100
15 0
• A bit string could have different
interpretations
Unsigned binary integers
• Each digit (bit) is either 1 or 0
• Each bit represents a power of 2:
Every binary
number is a
sum of powers
of 2
Translating Binary to Decimal
Weighted positional notation shows how to
calculate the decimal value of each binary bit:
dec = (Dn-1 2n-1) (Dn-2 2n-2) ... (D1 21) (D0
20 )
D = binary digit
binary 00001001 = decimal 9:
(1 23) + (1 20) = 9
Translating Unsigned Decimal to
Binary
• Repeatedly divide the decimal integer by 2. Each
remainder is a binary digit in the translated
value:
37 = 100101
Binary addition
• Starting with the LSB, add each pair of
digits, include the carry if present.
Integer storage sizes
Standard sizes:
Practice: What is the largest unsigned integer that may be stored
in 20 bits?
Large measurements
• Kilobyte (KB), 210 bytes
• Megabyte (MB), 220 bytes
• Gigabyte (GB), 230 bytes
• Terabyte (TB), 240 bytes
• Petabyte
• Exabyte
• Zettabyte
• Yottabyte
Hexadecimal integers
All values in memory are stored in binary. Because long
binary numbers are hard to read, we use hexadecimal
representation.
Translating binary to hexadecimal
• Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to 4 binary
bits.
• Example: Translate the binary integer
000101101010011110010100 to hexadecimal:
Converting hexadecimal to
decimal
• Multiply each digit by its
corresponding power of 16:
dec = (D3 163) + (D2 162) + (D1 161) + (D0 160)
• Hex 1234 equals (1 163) + (2 162) + (3 161) +
(4 160), or decimal 4,660.
• Hex 3BA4 equals (3 163) + (11 * 162) + (10 161)
+ (4 160), or decimal 15,268.
Powers of 16
Used when calculating hexadecimal values up to
8 digits long:
Converting decimal to
hexadecimal
decimal 422 = 1A6 hexadecimal
Hexadecimal addition
Divide the sum of two digits by the number base (16). The quotient
becomes the carry value, and the remainder is the sum digit.
1 1
36 28 28 6A
42 45 58 4B
78 6D 80 B5
Important skill: Programmers frequently add and subtract the
addresses of variables and instructions.
Hexadecimal subtraction
When a borrow is required from the digit to the
left, add 10h to the current digit's value:
1
C6 75
A2 47
24 2E
Practice: The address of var1 is 00400020. The address of the next
variable after var1 is 0040006A. How many bytes are used by var1?
Signed integers
The highest bit indicates the sign. 1 = negative,
0 = positive
If the highest digit of a hexadecmal integer is > 7, the value is
negative. Examples: 8A, C5, A2, 9D
Two's complement notation
Steps:
– Complement (reverse) each bit
– Add 1
Note that 00000001 + 11111111 = 00000000
Binary subtraction
• When subtracting A – B, convert B to its
two's complement
• Add A to (–B)
1100 1100
– 0011 1101
1001
Advantages for 2’s complement:
• No two 0’s
• Sign bit
• Remove the need for separate circuits for
add and sub
Ranges of signed integers
The highest bit is reserved for the sign. This limits
the range:
Character
• Character sets
– Standard ASCII (0 – 127)
– Extended ASCII (0 – 255)
– ANSI (0 – 255)
– Unicode (0 – 65,535)
• Null-terminated String
– Array of characters followed by a null byte
• Using the ASCII table
– back inside cover of book
Boolean algebra
• Boolean expressions created from:
– NOT, AND, OR
NOT
• Inverts (reverses) a boolean value
• Truth table for Boolean NOT
operator:
Digital gate diagram for NOT:
NOT
AND
• Truth if both are true
• Truth table for Boolean AND operator:
Digital gate diagram for AND:
AND
OR
• True if either is true
• Truth table for Boolean OR operator:
Digital gate diagram for OR:
OR
Operator precedence
• NOT > AND > OR
• Examples showing the order of
operations:
• Use parentheses to avoid ambiguity
Truth Tables (1 of 3)
• A Boolean function has one or more Boolean
inputs, and returns a single Boolean output.
• A truth table shows all the inputs and outputs
of a Boolean function
Example: X Y
Truth Tables (2 of 3)
• Example: X Y
Truth Tables (3 of 3)
• Example: (Y S) (X S)
Two-input multiplexer
