Computer architecture
Introduction and evolution
Introduction to computer
architecture
• Computer architecture refers to the design and
organization of a computer system, including its
hardware, software, and the way different components
interact to process information. It acts as a blueprint for
how a computer functions and is a crucial aspect of
building efficient computing devices.
Key Components of Computer
Architecture
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The “brain” of the computer that processes instructions.
• Real-life Example: When you open a web browser, the
CPU fetches the program’s instructions, decodes them,
and executes them to display the webpage.
Cont.
• 2. Memory (RAM & Storage)
• RAM (Random Access Memory) provides temporary data
storage for quick access.
• Storage (SSD/HDD) retains data permanently.
• Real-life Example: When playing a video game, RAM
stores temporary game data for fast rendering, while
the hard drive stores saved game progress.
Cont.
3. Input Devices
Hardware that allows users to interact with the computer
(keyboard, mouse, touch screen).
• Real-life Example: When typing in a search bar, the
keyboard sends signals to the CPU, which processes
them and displays results on the screen.
Cont.
4. Output Devices
Displays the results of processing (monitor, speakers,
printer).
• Real-life Example: After clicking “print,” the CPU
processes the command, and the printer produces a
physical copy.
Cont.
5. System Bus
The communication pathway that transfers data between CPU, memory,
and other components.
Real-life Example: When you copy a file from a USB drive to your computer, the
system bus transfers the data between the USB port and the storage device.
6. Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
CU: Directs the operation of the processor.
ALU: Performs calculations and logical operations.
• Real-life Example: When using a calculator app, the ALU performs
addition/subtraction, while the CU ensures the process follows the correct
sequence.
Types of Computer Architecture
1. Von Neumann Architecture
Uses a single memory for storing both data and
instructions.
• Example: Traditional desktops and laptops follow this
model. When running a program, both the application’s
code and the user’s data are loaded into RAM.
Cont.
2. Harvard Architecture
Uses separate memory for instructions and data,
increasing efficiency.
• Example: Modern microcontrollers in appliances (like
washing machines) use Harvard architecture to quickly
process commands.
Cont.
3. Parallel Architecture
Uses multiple processors to execute tasks
simultaneously.
• Example: Supercomputers used in weather forecasting
process vast amounts of climate data in parallel.
Why Study Computer Architecture?
Studying computer architecture is essential for designing efficient, secure, and
high-performance computing systems. Here’s why it matters:
1. Performance Optimization – Helps write faster, more efficient software and
hardware.
2. Hardware-Software Integration – Bridges the gap between physical components
and applications.
• 3. Troubleshooting & System Design – Aids in diagnosing issues and building
better systems.
Cont.
4. Future Technologies – Supports advancements in AI, quantum computing, and
cloud computing.
5. Embedded Systems & IoT – Essential for designing smart devices and low-power
processors.
6. Security & Reliability – Helps prevent cyber threats and ensures system stability.
• 7. Career Growth – Opens opportunities in tech fields like AI, cybersecurity, and
embedded systems.
Computer Evolution & History
• The evolution of computers spans multiple decades,
transitioning from mechanical devices to modern high-
speed digital machines. Understanding this history
helps us appreciate how technological advancements
have shaped the modern world
Cont.
• Early Computing Devices (Pre-20th Century)
• 1. Abacus (3000 BC)One of the first counting devices
used for arithmetic calculations.
• Real-life Example: Merchants in ancient China and
Mesopotamia used the abacus for trade and business
transactions.
Cont.
2. Pascaline (1642)
A mechanical calculator invented by Blaise Pascal for addition and subtraction.
Example: Used in finance and taxation to speed up manual calculations.
3. Jacquard Loom (1804)
Used punch cards to automate weaving patterns in textiles.
• Example: This system influenced early computer programming languages like
FORTRAN.
Cont.
4. Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine (1837)
Considered the first mechanical computer, featuring an arithmetic logic unit and
memory.
Example: The concept behind modern general-purpose computers.
5. Ada Lovelace’s Algorithm (1843)
Recognized as the first computer programmer for designing an algorithm for Babbage’s
machine.
• Example: Influenced the development of modern programming languages.
The Generations of Computers
1st Generation (1940s-1950s) – Vacuum Tube Computers
Used vacuum tubes for processing and magnetic drums for storage.
Large, expensive, and consumed a lot of power.
Example:
ENIAC (1946) – The first general-purpose electronic computer used for military
calculations.
• UNIVAC (1951) – First commercial computer used by the U.S. Census Bureau.
Cont.
2nd Generation (1950s-1960s) – Transistor-Based Computers
Vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors, making computers smaller, faster, and more
reliable.
Magnetic core memory replaced drum memory for faster access.
Key Developments:
IBM 1401 (1959) – A widely used business computer for payroll and accounting.
COBOL (1959) and FORTRAN (1957) – Early programming languages that automated business
and scientific calculations.
Real-life Example:
• Airline reservation systems started using computers, just like modern online booking
platforms such as Expedia.
Cont.
3rd Generation (1960s-1970s) – Integrated Circuits (Ics) and Minicomputers
Integrated Circuits (Ics) allowed multiple transistors on a single chip, increasing processing power
and reducing size.
Operating systems introduced multitasking and time-sharing capabilities.
Key Developments:
Apollo Guidance Computer (1969) – Used in NASA’s Apollo 11 mission to land humans on the
moon.
IBM System/360 (1964) – First general-purpose computer system with interchangeable software
and hardware.
Real-life Example:
• Early bank ATMs used third-generation computer technology, similar to today’s automated
banking systems.
Cont.
• 4th Generation (1970s-Present) –
• Microprocessors and Personal Computing
• The invention of microprocessors (CPU on a single chip) revolutionized
computing.
• Led to personal computers (PCs) and widespread software
development.
• Key Inventions:
• Intel 4004 (1971) – First commercially available microprocessor.
• Apple II (1977) & IBM PC (1981) – Popularized personal computing for
homes and offices.
• Microsoft Windows (1985) – Made graphical user interfaces (GUI)
mainstream.
Cont.
5th Generation (Present & Future) – Artificial Intelligence and Quantum Computing
Focuses on AI, deep learning, neural networks, and quantum computing.
Uses parallel processing and cloud computing to handle large-scale tasks.
Key Developments:
IBM Watson (2011) – AI-powered supercomputer capable of understanding natural language.
Google Quantum Computer (2020s) – Can solve complex problems beyond the capability of
classical computers.
Real-life Example:
• Self-driving cars, AI chatbots, and real-time language translation use AI-driven computing
