Metal Casting and Welding (BMEE302L)

MODULE 2: Expendable mould casting

Dr. Manoj Kumar R
r.manojkumar@vit.ac.in
Mobile No: 9121989787
Metal casting
Casting is a manufacturing process that involves pouring a liquid material into a mold/empty shaped
space or cavity, allowing it to solidify, and then removing the solidified part from the mold.

The metal then cools and hardens into the form given to it by the shaped mold.

Casting is often a less expensive way to manufacture a piece compared with machining the part out of a
piece of solid metal.
 One of the oldest processes is casting. Casting was first used around 4000 b.c. to make
ornaments, arrowheads, and various other objects.

 A wide variety of products can be cast, and the process is capable of producing intricate
shapes in one piece, including those with internal cavities, such as engine blocks

 Almost all metals can be cast in, or nearly in, the final shape desired, often requiring only
minor finishing operations.

 This capability places casting among the most important net-shape manufacturing
technologies, along with net-shape forging.
There are many types of casting which works differently but all these processes involves
following steps.

 First Create the predefined cavity or mould.

 Melt the metal in a suitable furnace (solid to liquid state).
 Poured the molten metal into a predefine cavity and allow them to solidify at desired cooling rate
 Removal of cast part from mould and clean it for further processes like machining, surface finishing
polishing etc.

Advantages:
 It can create any complex structure economically.
 The size of object doesn’t matter for casting.
 The casting objects have high compressive strength.
 All structure made by casting has wide range of properties.
 This can create an accurate object.
 All material can be cast.
 It creates isotropic structure.
 It is cheapest among all manufacturing processes.
 Composite component can be easily made by casting.
 Shell Molding

In the plaster-molding process, the mold is

made of plaster of paris (gypsum or calcium
sulfate), with the addition of talc and silica
powder to improve strength and to control the
time required for the plaster to set.

Squeeze Casting
Disadvantages of casting:
Along many advantages, casting has following disadvantages.
 It gives poor surface finish and mostly requires surface finish operation.
 Casting defects involves in this process.
 It gives low fatigue strength compare to forging.

Casting Terminology:

Flask:

The moulding flask is used to hold the sand mould. The

sand mould has desire cavity of object which to be casted.

The sand is rammed into the flask to create sand mould in

which metal is poured to get desire shape.

It is created into minimum two pieces which allows

removal of pattern easily.
Cope:
The upper part of moulding flask is known as cope.

Drag:
The lower part of moulding flask is known as drag.

Cheeks:
When the moulding flask made into more than two parts,
the intermediate parts are known as cheeks. These are used in complex casting.

Pattern:
Pattern is replica of object to be created. It is made by either wood, wax or other suitable
material. It is placed into moulding flask and sand rammed over it which forms an object
cavity into sand.

Pouring Basin:
It is a funnel shape cavity at the top of the mould. The metal is poured into pouring basin
from where it is supplied at different parts of mould.
Runner:
Runner is a horizontal passage of molten metal. It connects sprue to gatting system.
Normally it is situated at lower half of mould.

Riser:
Riser is used as reservoir of molten metal when pouring of molten metal has stopped. When
the cavity is filled by molten metal, the pouring is stopped which allows solidifying object.

During solidification, volumetric shrinkage takes place which reduces the desire size and
shape of object. The riser is provided into the mould which supplies the molten metal to
remove effect of volumetric shrinkage during solidification. These are further divided into
top riser, blind riser, side riser etc.

Sprue:
It is a passage which connects pouring basin to the runner.
It controls the flow of molten metal from pouring basin.
It is tapered in shape.
Ingate :
It is the entry point through which molten metal enters into the
actual mould cavity.

Core:
Core is used to cast hollow cavity. It is also a sand structure and placed at right place into
mould cavity where hollow part is to be created. The metal poured into mould cavity does
not fill the part at which core is placed thus form a hollow cavity.

Chaplets:
These are supporting components of core. These used to support and hold the core into
mould cavity. These protect the core from various forces encounter in casting.

Chills:
Chills are generally solid metal pieces which are placed into cavity to increase cooling rate.
Mainly it is used to create direction solidification of molten metal. They have high thermal
conductivity.
Vents:
These are small passages made in mould which allow to escape the gases during
solidification.

Fig: Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation

Patterns

Patterns are used to mold the sand mixture into the shape of the casting, and may be made of
wood, plastic, or metal.

Casting pattern shapes casting mold, and the mold creates metal parts, so the casting pattern
is very crucial to the final parts.

The selection of a pattern material depends on the size and shape of the casting, the
dimensional accuracy and the quantity of castings required, and the molding process.

Making a casting pattern is not only shaping a mold cavity,

accurate dimensions, scientific feeding system, and mold
removing method should also be considered.
Casting pattern materials properties:

Lower cost and less weight: with the lower cost and less weight you are easier to find the
balanced point of costs and returns.

Resistance of water: choosing the material with resistance of water protects your casting
pattern from rusting. Casting patterns with this kind of material will have a long lifetime and
produce high quality patterns.

Durable: durable material provides a long lifetime of your casting pattern, so you should
consider the durable property of the material before you choose casting pattern materials.

Versatile: various industries need casting patterns to create the casting process, so the
versatile property of casting pattern material is very important. It ensures the pattern can be
used in many kinds of industries, and repaired easier.
Types of pattern allowances

Draft allowances: draft allowances creates a taper for removing

casting pattern without any distortion. And the accurate angle of
taper depends on the type of mold and surface, and the complexity of the casting pattern.

Shrinkage allowance: usually the casting pattern has a bigger size of the mold, because
most metal material contracts when it cools. The shrinkage allowance compensates for the
cooling shrink of metal, and the precise parameter of the allowance depends on the metal
material.

Distortion allowance: casting patterns have a special design for avoiding the expected
cooling distortion. We call it a distortion allowance.

Machining allowance: excess material in the finishing stage for compensating some loss
materials.
Single Piece Pattern

Single piece pattern, also called solid pattern is the lowest cost casting pattern.

It is very suitable for simple process, and small scale production and the large casting
manufacturers prefer it because this kind of casting pattern make casting process just
needing simple shapes, flat surfaces like simple rectangular blocks. One flat surface is used
to separate planes.

Two-Piece Pattern

Two-piece pattern also called split piece pattern is a common casting pattern for intricate
casting.

This kind of pattern has parting planes which may have flat or irregular surface, and the
exact position of the plane was decided by the shape of the casting.
 There are two pieces of the split piece pattern. One of the parts is molded in drag and
another is molded in cope. And the cope part always has dowel pins. With the dowel pins,
the two halves of split piece pattern can be aligned.

Multi Piece Pattern

Multi piece pattern is a good solution for complex designs which is hard to make.

This kind of pattern includes 3 or more pattern which helps you

achieve mold making.

Take the three-piece pattern as an example.

The pattern is made of the top, bottom, and middle parts. The top part is cope, the bottom
part drag, and the middle parts are called as checkbox.
Match Plate Pattern

Match plate pattern has a metallic plate to divide the cope and drag
areas into the opposite face of the plate.

This kind of pattern nearly has no hard work and can provide high output.

It is widely used in the manufacturing industry, and usually has an expensive cost, precise
casting and high yield. And this kind of casting pattern is widely used in metal casting like
aluminum.

Gate Pattern

Gate pattern can consist of one or more patterns into a pattern molding pattern.

It is designed for the mold which makes multiple components at one casting process. The
gates are used to combine the different patterns, and runners to create a flow way for the
molten materials.
Skeleton Pattern

Skeleton pattern is large in size, and it is a good choice for the casting
which has the simple size and shape.

This kind of casting pattern is expensive and not versatile.

It is not the best choice from the aspect of economic, while is very efficient in extra sand
removing. The skeleton pattern is widely used in the industries of pit or floor welding.

Sweep Pattern

Sweep pattern uses a wooden board with proper size to rotate along
one edge to shape the cavity.

This kind of casting pattern creates a cavity in the vertical direction and the base of it is
attached with sand, and it also creates casting in a very short time, and it has consisted of
three parts: spindle, base and sweep which also called wooden board.
Loose Piece Pattern

Loose piece pattern can help manufacturers remove one piece of solid
pattern which is above or below the parting plane of the mold.

This kind of pattern needs extra skilled labor work, so it is expensive casting pattern in
castings.

Shell Pattern

Shell pattern is a good choice to create hollow shaped structure.

It parts along the center and dowels the resultant halves.

Cope and Drag Pattern

Just like its name, cope and drag pattern has consisted of two
separate plates, and it has two parts which can be separately
molded on the pattern molding box, and these parts create the cavity.
Cores
 For castings with internal cavities or passages, such as those found in automotive engine blocks or valve
bodies, cores are utilized.

 Cores are placed in the mold cavity to form the interior surfaces of the casting, and are removed from the
finished part during shakeout and further processing.

 Like molds, cores must possess strength, permeability, collapsibility, and the ability to withstand heat; hence
cores are made of sand aggregates.

 The core is anchored by core prints, which are geometric features added to the pattern to locate and support
the core and to provide vents for the escape of gases. To keep the core from shifting, metal supports (chaplets)
may be used to anchor the core in place
Types of cores and core making
 Cores are made of sand, clay (binder) and moisture. The mixture of sand, clay and moisture is thoroughly mixed and then it
is compacted in the core box.

 On compaction, the sand mixture attains the shape of the cavity in the core box.

 In order to prevent the core from breaking/ crumbling (during handling) reinforcement of cores is done by inserting
metallic wires in them.

Cop
e
Cor Cor
Drae e
Horizontal Vertical core
core g

Balanced core Drop core

 The core is next placed in an oven and heated to 154˚C for about 2 hours to drive out the moisture in the core sand. On
drying the core attains strength.
Types of Casting Defects
(a) Misruns are castings that solidify before completely filling the mold cavity. Typical causes are (1) fluidity of the
molten metal is insufficient, (2) pouring temperature is too low, (3) pouring is done too slowly, and/or (4) cross
section of the mold cavity is too thin.

(b) Cold shuts occur when two portions of the metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion between them from
premature freezing. Its causes are similar to those of a misrun.

(c) Cold shots result from splattering during pouring, causing solid globules of metal to form that become entrapped
in the casting. Pouring procedures and gating system designs that avoid splattering can prevent this defect.

(d) Shrinkage cavity is a depression in the surface or an internal void in the casting, caused by solidification shrinkage
that restricts the amount of molten metal available in the last region to freeze. It often occurs near the top of the
casting, The problem can often be solved by proper riser design.

(e) Microporosity consists of a network of small voids distributed throughout the casting caused by localized
solidification shrinkage of the final molten metal in the dendritic structure. The defect is usually associated with
alloys, because of the protracted manner in which freezing occurs in these metals.

(f) Hot tearing, also called hot cracking, occurs when the casting is restrained from contraction by an unyielding
mold during the final stages of solidification or early stages of cooling after solidification.
A—Metallic projections, consisting of fins, flash, or projections, such as swells and rough surfaces.

B—Cavities, consisting of rounded or rough internal or exposed

cavities, including blowholes, pinholes, and shrinkage cavities

C—Discontinuities, such as cracks, cold or hot tearing, and cold

shuts. If the solidifying metal is constrained from shrinking
freely, cracking and tearing may occur

D—Defective surface, such as surface folds, laps, scars,

adhering sand layers, and oxide scale.

E—Incomplete casting, such as misruns (due to premature

solidification), insufficient volume of the metal poured, and
runout (due to loss of metal from the mold after pouring).

F—Incorrect dimensions or shape, due to such factors as

improper shrinkage allowance, pattern mounting error,
irregular contraction, deformed pattern, or warped casting.

G—Inclusions, which form during melting, solidification, and

molding. Generally nonmetallic, they are regarded as harmful,
because they act as stress raisers, and thus reduce the strength
of the casting.
Solidification of Metals
Inspection of Castings

Several methods can be used to inspect castings to determine their quality and the presence
and types of any defects.

Castings can be inspected visually, or optically, for surface defects.

Subsurface and internal defects are investigated using various nondestructive techniques.

Visual Inspection
This method uses the human eye to identify surface defects, cracks, gas evolution, slag or
sand inclusions, misruns, cold shuts, and molding flaws.

Dimensional Inspection
This type of castings inspection is undertaken to ensure a
part meets dimensional requirements/tolerances.
This can be done manually or with a coordinate measuring machine
(CMM) that uses probes to get very precise measurements.
Liquid Dye Penetrant Inspection (LPI)

Finds tiny cracks, pores, or other surface imperfections in all types of metal castings which
would be hard to see by looking. The tester first cleans the casting to remove any particles of
grit or dust that may prevent the liquid dye from going into cracks in the metal.

Once clean and dry, the tester bathes the casting with a penetrant solution. Different types of
LPI use different solutions, but generally it’s a brightly dyed oil with high capillary action and
low viscosity, meaning it will run freely into cracks in the casting. This dye is left for a “dwell
time” so that it can work its way into any invisible crevices.)
Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for detecting
surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel,
cobalt, and some of their alloys.

Magnetic particle inspection can detect both production discontinuities (seams, laps,
grinding cracks and quenching cracks) and in-service damage (fatigue and overload cracks).

A ferromagnetic test specimen is magnetized with a strong magnetic field created by a

magnet or special equipment. If the specimen has a discontinuity, the discontinuity will
interrupt the magnetic field flowing through the specimen and a leakage field will occur.

Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye

pigment are applied to the test specimen.
These particles are attracted to leakage fields and
will cluster to form an indication directly over the
discontinuity.
This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting conditions.
Ultrasonic testing(UT) - applicable to most materials, metallic or non-metallic. Ultrasonic
testing uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make measurements.

Ultrasonic examinations can be conducted on a wide variety of material forms including

castings, forgings, welds, and composites. By this method, surface and internal discontinuities
such as laps, seams, voids, cracks, blow holes, inclusions and lack of bond can be accurately
evaluated from one side. Frequencies from 1-10 Mega Hertz(MHz) are typically used.

LIMITATIONS -Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound. Skill and training is more
extensive than with some other methods. Normally requires a coupling medium to promote
transfer of sound energy into test specimen. Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very
small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
Radiographic Inspection (X-Ray)
X-rays create images like those in a hospital that show broken bones. The ghostly images
produced through casting X-Ray show dark spots where there are shrinkage cavities, the
small breaks and crevices of heat cracking, or the pinhole dots of porosity.

These images help an experienced metalworker decide if the casting’s mechanical properties
are compromised by shrinkage, inclusions, or holes and whether they can be fixed before
castings are shipped.
 In destructive testing specimens are removed from various sections of a casting, and
tested for strength, ductility, and other mechanical properties, and to determine the
presence, location, and distribution of porosity and any other defects.

Pressure tightness of cast components (such as valves, pumps, and pipes) is usually
determined by sealing the openings in the casting, then pressurizing it with water, oil, or
air.

For leak tightness requirements in critical applications, pressurized helium or specially

scented gases, with detectors (sniffers), are used.

The casting is then inspected for leaks while the pressure is maintained; unacceptable or
defective castings are remelted for reprocessing.
Importance of Chill

Porosity in a casting may be caused by shrinkage,

entrained or dissolved gases, or both.

Porosity caused by shrinkage can be reduced or

eliminated by various means, including the following:

 Adequate liquid metal should be provided to

prevent cavities caused by shrinkage.

 Internal or external chills, as those used in sand

casting (Fig. 10.14), also are an effective
means of reducing shrinkage porosity.
The elements of a gating system are
• Pouring Basin,

• Sprue, Sprue Base Well,

• Runner, Runner Extension,

• Gate or Ingate,Riser
A gating system should be able to do the following

• Permit complete filling of the mould cavity

• Requires minimum time to fill the mould cavity
• Minimum turbulence so as to minimize gas pickup
• Regulate rate at which molten metal enters the mould cavity
• Prevent unwanted material from entering mould cavity
• Establish suitable temperature gradients
• No mould erosion
• Simple and economical design 46
• Easy to implement and remove after solidification
• Maximum casting yield
Soil
 It is the loose surface material that covers most land.
 It consists of inorganic particles and organic matter.
 Soils vary greatly in their chemical and physical
properties.
 It is a mixture of minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms.
 It consists of a solid phase of minerals as well as a porous
Molding Sand
Molding sand has three important advantages over other mold materials:

it is inexpensive,
it is easily recycled, and
it can withstand extremely high temperatures.

For a casting to be successful, the mold cavity must retain its shape until the metal has
cooled and fully solidified.

Pure sand breaks apart easily, but molding sand contains bonding material that increases its
ability to resist heat and hold shape.

Green sand (an aggregate of sand, pulverized coal, bentonite clay, and water)(89 percent
sand, 4 percent water, and 7 percent clay) has traditionally been used in sand casting,
however modern chemically bonded molding systems are becoming more popular. The most
widely used casting sand is silica (SiO2).
Molding Sand Properties
Strength
The ability of the sand mold to hold its geometric shape under the conditions of mechanical stress.

Permeability
The ability of a sand mold to permit the escape of gases and steam during the casting process.

Moisture Content
Moisture content affects a mold’s strength and permeability: a mold with too little moisture may break
apart, while a mold with too much moisture can cause steam bubbles to be entrapped in the casting.

Flowability
The capacity of the sand to fill small cavities in the pattern. High flowability creates a more precise mold,
and is therefore useful for detailed castings.

Grain Size
small grain size enhances mold strength, but large grain size is more permeable.
Finely grained sand provides castings with a good surface finish, but possesses low permeability, while
course grained sand provides the opposite.
Grain Shape
Rounded Grain sands provide relatively poor bonding strength, but good flowability and surface
finish.
Angular Grains have greater bonding strength because of interlocking, but poorer flowability and
permeability than rounded grain sands.
Sub-angular Grains are the middle road. They possess better strength and lower permeability relative
to rounded grains, but lower strength and better permeability than angular grains.

Collapsibility
The ability of the sand mixture to collapse under force. Greater mold collapsibility allows the metal
casting to shrink freely as it solidifies, without the risk of hot tearing or cracking.

Refractory Strength
The mold must not melt, burn, or crack as molten metal is poured into it. Refractory strength
measures the ability of molding sand to withstand extreme heat.

Reusability
The ability of molding sand to be reused (after sand conditioning) to produce other sand castings in
subsequent manufacturing operations.
Types of Moulding sand
Silica sand
• The main ingredients of moulding sand are silica grain (SiO 2), clay (as binder -
Bentonite) and water (to activate the clay and provide plasticity)
• Silica sand – silica grains up to 96%, the rest being the other oxides such as alumina,
sodium (Na2O+K2O) and magnesium oxide (MgO+CaO) – impurities kept below 2%,
otherwise affects fusion point of silica
• Source – river sand, used with or without washing
• Fusion point of sands should be about 1450C for cast iron and about 1550C for
steels
• Size range – few micrometer to millimetres
• Shape – round, sub-angular, angular and very angular
• Size and shape affect the property of moulding sand 53
Zircon sand
Zirconium silicate (ZrSiO4)
• Typical composition ZrO2 – 66.25%, SiO2 – 30.96%, Al2O3 – 1.92%, Fe2O3 – 0.74% and traces
of other oxides
• Very expensive, available in Kerala
• Fusion point is 2400C
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, high chilling power and
high density
• Requires very small binder (about 3%)
• Used to manufacture precision steel castings requiring better surface finish and for
precision investment casting

54
Chromite and Olivine sand
• Chromite sand is crushed from the chrome ore whose typical composition is
Cr2O3 – 44%, Fe2O3 – 28%, SiO2 -2.5%, CaO – 0.5% and Al2O3+MgO – 25%
• Fusion point – 1800C
• Very small binder  3% needed
• Used for manufacture of austenetic manganese steel castings and heavy steel
castings requiring better surface finish
• Olivine sand contains minerals fosterite (Mg2SiO4) and fayalite (Fe2SiO4). Same
mixture can be used for a range of steels

55
Clay (as binder)

• The most popular clay types are

• Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3 4SiO2 H2O nH2O)

• Kaolinite and Bentonite melting point ranges from 1750C to 1787C and 1250C to
1300C respectively
• Bentonite absorb more water, which increases its bonding power
• Western bentonite – sodium as adsorbed ion – better swelling properties, volume increase to
about 10 – 20 times, high dry strength with lower risk of erosion, better tolerance of variation in
water content, low green strength and high resistance to burnout
• Calcium bentonite – low dry strength but higher green strength. Properties can be improved by
56
treating it chemically with soda ash (sodium carbonate)
Water (to activate clay and provide plasticity)
• Adding water to clay develops necessary plasticity and strength

• Water absorbed by clay helps in bonding, while the reminder up to a limit helps in improving the
plasticity

• Beyond certain limit decrease the strength and formability

• The normal percentage of water used from 2 to 8%

Besides these three main ingredients, many other materials also may be added
• Cereal binder up to 2% increases the strength

• Pitch obtained as by-product in coke make if used up to 3% would improve hot strength

• Saw dust used up to 2% may improve the collapsibility by slow burning and increase the
57
permeability
Moulding sand properties – Clay and water
Clay saturated sand

Green compression strength( Mpa)

An optimum amount of water to be used for given clay
content to obtain maximum green compression strength 2

The water reacts with the clay and forms a linkage of

silica-water-clay-water-silica
An additional amount of water increases plasticity and
dry strength, but reduces the green compression
0 0 15
strength Percent of clay

 Clay saturated sand – cast iron and heavy non ferrous metal foundries. Reduce defects
like sand expansion, erosion and cuts and washes 58
Moulding sand properties – moulding procedures
The degree of ramming increases the bulk

Green permeability number

200 10 RAMS 6 RAMS
density or the mould hardness of the sand 3 RAMS
180
The permeability of green sand decreases with
160
the degree of ramming
140
When the ramming is rising from 3 to 10 rams,
120
the sand gets compacted and in the process 100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
reduces the voids in sand
Water %

59
Moulding sand properties - additives
Additives Purpose served
Molasses Enhancement of bench life and resistance to drying out
Cereals
Ethylene glycol
Iron oxide Hot strength development
Silica flour
Coal dust Surface finish and resistance to metal penetration
Silica flour
Cereals Collapsibility and resistance to expansion defects
Saw dust

Iron oxide – up to 3% maximum – improves surface finish, decreases metal

penetration, reduces burn-on, increases the chilling60 effect of mould and
increase glazing – decreases green strength and permeability
Moulding sand properties
Coal dust
• When comes in contact with the molten metal would provide a gaseous envelope to
keep the molten metal from fusing with the sand thus providing good surface finish
Sawdust or wood flour
• It reduces the expansion defects while improving the flowability of the moulding
sand and help maintain uniform mould density. Too high wood flour makes the
moulding sand brittle
Starch and dextrin
• Organic binding material which increase resistance to deformation, skin hardness
and expansion defects

61
Types Of Casting Processes :

1.Expendable mold processes

 A mold after process must be destroyed in order to remove the casting.
 A new mold is required for each new casting.
 Production rates often limited by time to make mold rather than casting itself.
 More complex shapes possible.
 Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials + binders.

2. Non-Expendable mold processes

 Mold is made of metal and can be used to make many castings.
 Part shapes are limited
 Permanent mold processes are more economic in high production operation;
 Mold: made of metal and, less commonly, a ceramic refractory material
3. Composite molds – Made of two or more different materials (such as sand, graphite, and metal),
combining the advantages of each material.
These molds have a permanent and an expendable portion, and are used in various casting processes
to improve mold strength, control the cooling rate, and optimize the overall economics of the casting
operation.
 Shell Molding

In the plaster-molding process, the mold is

made of plaster of paris (gypsum or calcium
sulfate), with the addition of talc and silica
powder to improve strength and to control the
time required for the plaster to set.

Squeeze Casting
1. Sand Casting :
Sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting. Sand casting allows for
smaller batches than permanent mold casting and at a very reasonable cost.

Steps are used in the Sand casting process;

1. Pattern Making: Patterns are the replica of casting.
Patterns are manufactured using wood, metals, wax, plaster of Paris, etc. For the preparation
of patterns various tools and equipments are used.
2. Molding and Core making: Prepare a mold cavity by using patterns and use the core for
making hollow parts in casting.
3. Melting and Casting: Melt the metal in the furnace and pour it in the mould cavity. Wait
until it solidifies. As the casting gets solidify, remove the casted part from the sand.
4. Cleaning of Casting: After removing the casting from the sand cut the runners and risers,
also trim the flash appears at parting line of the mould.
5. Testing of Casting: Test the casting for various defects.
Advantages of Sand casting – Wide range of metals, sizes, shapes, low cost
Disadvantages of sand casting-poor surface finish, wide tolerance
Examples of sand casting –Engine blocks, Cylinder heads
Shell Molding Process

Pattern creation – A two-piece metal pattern is created in the shape of the desired part, typically from iron
or steel. Other materials are sometimes used, such as aluminum for low volume production or graphite for
casting reactive materials.
Mold creation – First, each pattern half is heated to 175-370 °C (350-700 °F) and coated with a lubricant to
facilitate removal.
Next, the heated pattern is clamped to a dump box,
which contains a mixture of sand and a resin binder.

The dump box is inverted, allowing this sand-resin

mixture to coat the pattern.

The heated pattern partially cures the mixture,

which now forms a shell around the pattern.

Each pattern half and the surrounding shell is cured

to completion in an oven and then the shell is
ejected from the pattern.
Mold assembly – The two shell halves are joined together and securely clamped to form the
complete shell mold. If any cores are required, they are inserted prior to closing the mold.
The shell mold is then placed into a flask and supported by a backing material.

Pouring – The mold is securely clamped together while the molten metal is poured from a
ladle into the gating system and fills the mold cavity.

Cooling – After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify
into the shape of the final casting.

Casting removal – After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be broken and the
casting removed. Trimming and cleaning processes are required to remove any excess metal
from the feed system and any sand from the mold.

Advantages of shell mold casting: better accuracy, finish, higher production rate
Disadvantages of shell mold casting: limited part size
Examples of shell mold casting: connecting rods, gear housings.
Investment Casting

It is also called the lost wax method. This method involves the use of an expendable pattern
surrounded with a shell of refractory material to form a casting mold.

Steps in investment casting are; making a master pattern, making wax patterns, making a
tree of wax pattern coating it with a slurry of fine silica sand and water, melting out the wax
pattern, and baking the mold, making a casting. It is generally adopted for ornaments and
jewelry.
Advantages of Investment casting :
High dimensional accuracy and close tolerance can be achieved., Castings are free from usual
defects, Intricate shapes can easily casted., No parting line on casting.
Disadvantages Of Investment Casting :
The process is expensive., Only small jobs can be done.,
Applications of Investment Casting :
Parts of aircraft engines, Nozzles, vanes, and blades of turbines. Jewelry items parts of
machine tools, instruments, etc.
Evaporative Casting or
MOULDING EQUIPMENT

 Hand moulding is suitable for small batch production or for large size castings
 Production work involving large batches of the same type of casting to be produced,
machine moulding is a necessary
 Three methods used for ramming the sand into the moulding flask

• Jolting

• Squeezing
75

• Sand slinging
 JOLT MOULDING

 The sand is first filled into the flask

generally from a overhead hopper
and it is raised to certain height
before it is allowed to free fall on to a
solid bed plate
 The resulting impact, forces the sand to
get compacted uniformly into the mould  Suitable for horizontal surfaces
 This lifting and dropping process  Severe impact on moulding equipment
continues repeatedly till the hardness is  Sand at bottom experiences highest 76

achieved force that at top layer

77
SQUEEZE RAMMING
 A plate slightly smaller that the
inside dimensions of the
moulding flask is fitted into the
flask already filled with the
moulding sand
 A uniform pressure is applied  Contour on squeeze plate is
on the plate, either by moving
provided to match pattern
it down or moving the flask
profile for achieving uniform
upwards
hardness of the mould
 The sand next to the plate  Suitable for small castings and is
rams hardest while the sand 78
generally suitable for shallow
below is progressively less
flask
79
SAND SLINGING
 As can be seen, moulding sand is fed
into a housing containing an
impeller that rotates rapidly around
a horizontal axis.
 Sand particles are picked up by the
rotating blades and thrown at a high  Uniform hardness is
speed through an opening onto the achieved by spraying sand
pattern, which is positioned in the flask. in layers
 This type of machine is employed in
 Initial cost of equipment is

moulding sand in flasks of any size, higher compared to that of

other forms of moulding 80
whether for mass production of
mould’s or individual mould. machines
Melting Practice and Furnaces

Melting practice is an important aspect of casting operations, because it has a direct

bearing on the quality of castings.

Furnaces are charged with melting stock, consisting of metal, alloying elements, and various
other materials such as flux and slag-forming constituents.

Fluxes are inorganic compounds that refine the molten metal by removing dissolved gases
and various impurities; they may be added manually or can be injected automatically into
the molten metal.

Types of furnaces
1. Crucible furnace.
2. Air furnace.
3. Open hearth furnace.
4. Electric furnace.
5. Cupola furnace.