Resmi N.G.

Reference: Digital Image Processing

Rafael C. Gonzalez
Richard E. Woods
Module 1 - Syllabus
Introduction to Image processing:
Fundamental steps in image processing;
Components of image processing system;
Pixels; coordinate conventions;
Imaging Geometry;
Spatial Domain;
Frequency Domain;
Sampling and quantization;
Basic relationship between pixels;
Applications of Image Processing.

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Introduction
An image may be defined as a two-
dimensional function, f (x, y), where x and y
are spatial (plane) coordinates, and the
amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates (x, y)
is called the intensity or gray level of the
image at that point.

When x, y, and the intensity values of f are all

finite, discrete quantities, we call the image a
digital image.
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 The field of digital image processing refers to
processing digital images by means of a
digital computer.

A digital image is composed of a finite

number of elements, each of which has a
particular location and value. These elements
are called picture elements, image elements,
pels, and pixels.

Pixel is the term used most widely to denote

the elements of a digital image.

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A digital image

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Digital image processing

Processing of a two dimensional image using a computer.

Digital processing of any two dimensional data for storage,

transmission and machine perception.

Image processing  image analysis  computer vision

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 Three Types of Processing
Low-Level
 Both inputs and outputs are images.
 Involves primitive operations such as image
preprocessing to reduce noise, contrast enhancement,
and image sharpening.
Middle-Level
Inputs are images; Outputs are attributes extracted
from images (eg; edges, contours, identity of
individual objects).
Involves image segmentation (partitioning image into
regions or objects), description of those objects to
reduce them to a form suitable for computer
processing, classification or recognition
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objects.
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 High-Level
 Working with recognized objects as in image
analysis.
 eg; automated analysis of text
I. Acquiring image of area containing the
text.
II. Preprocessing

III. Segmenting individual characters.

IV. Describing characters in a form suitable

for computer processing.
V. Recognizing the individual characters.

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Origin of Image Processing
One of the first applications of digital
imaging was in the newspaper industry.
Early 1920’s- Introduction of The Bartlane
Cable Picture Transmission system.
Pictures were sent by submarine cable
between London and New York.
5 distinct levels of grey.

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 1929: Levels of grey increased to 15.

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 1964: Pictures of moon transmitted by
Ranger7 were processed using computers to
correct various types of image distortion.

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Applications of DIP
Medical applications-to study X-ray images.

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 Geographic Information Systems-to study
pollution patterns from aerial and satellite
images.

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 Astronomy

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 Applications classified based on
their sources of energy
Electro-magnetic spectrum (gamma rays
with highest energy to radio waves with
lowest energy)

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 Gamma-ray Imaging
Radioactive isotope emits positrons while it
decays.
Gamma rays are given off when a positron hits
an electron.
These are detected and image is created.

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 X-ray Imaging
X-rays are generated using an X-ray
tube(vacuum tube with a cathode and an
anode).

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 Imaging in Ultra Violet Band

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 Imaging in Visible and Infrared Bands

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 Remote sensing applications

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Other areas of application
Microwave band – Radar (explores inaccessible
region’s of earth’s surface)
Radio band – in medicine(Magnetic Resonance
Imaging) and astronomy
Acoustic Imaging (mineral and oil exploration
over land and water)
Synthetic Imaging
Archaeology
Physics
Biology
Defense
Industry
Machine perception
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Fundamental Steps in Digital Image
Processing

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Image acquisition
Involves preprocessing such as scaling

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Image Enhancement
Brings out details that are obscured.
Highlights certain features of interest in an
image.

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Image Restoration
Improves appearance of an image
Based on mathematical or probabilistic
models of image degradation.

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Colour Image Processing
Colour is used to extract features of interest
in an image.

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 Wavelets and Multiresolution
Processing
Wavelets are used:
for representing images in various degrees of
resolution
for data compression
pyramidal representation

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Compression
Reduces the storage required to save an
image or bandwidth required to transmit it.

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Morphological Processing
Tools for extracting image components that
are useful in the representation and
description of shape of image. eg; boundary
extraction.

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Segmentation

Partitions image into its constituent parts or

objects.

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 Feature Extraction
Feature extraction mostly follows the output of a
segmentation stage, which usually is raw pixel
data, constituting either the boundary of a region
or all the points in the region itself.

Feature extraction consists of feature detection

and feature description.

Feature detection refers to finding the features in

an image, region, or boundary.
Feature description assigns quantitative attributes
to the detected features.
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 Feature processing methods discussed in this
chapter are subdivided into three principal
categories, depending on whether they are
applicable to boundaries, regions, or whole
images.

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Image pattern classification
Image pattern classification is the process
that assigns a label (e.g., “vehicle”) to an
object based on its feature descriptors.
“Classical” approaches:
minimum-distance, correlation, and Bayes
classifiers,
More modern approaches:
Deep neural networks especially deep
convolutional neural networks.

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Knowledge base
Knowledge about a problem domain is coded
into an image processing system in the form
of a knowledge database

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Components of
an Image
Processing
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Image Acquisition
Two elements:
Image sensors
Digitizer

Image sensor – Physical device that is sensitive

to the energy radiated by the object we wish to
image.

Digitizer – Converts sensing device output to

digital form.

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 Specialized Image Processing
Hardware
High speed front end subsystem.
Two elements:
Digitizer
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations

in parallel on entire images.
eg; averaging images for noise reduction.

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Computer
The computer in an image processing system
is a general-purpose computer and can range
from a PC to a supercomputer.

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Image Processing Software
Consists of specialized modules that perform
specific tasks.
User can write code utilizing these
specialized modules.

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Mass Storage
A must for image storage
Image of size 1024 x 1024 pixels in which
intensity of each pixel is an 8-bit quantity
requires 1 MB of storage space.
3 categories:
Short-trem (during processing – computer
memory/frame buffers)
Online storage (for frequent, fast access –
magnetic disks or optical-media storage)
Archival (infrequent access, massive storage –
magnetic tapes, optical disks)
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Image Displays
Color flat, screen monitors

Hardcopy devices
For recording images
laser printers, film cameras, heat-sensitive
devices, ink-jet units, and digital units, such
as optical and CD-ROM disks.

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 Networking and cloud
communication
Because of the large amount of data inherent
in image processing applications, the key
consideration in image transmission is
bandwidth.

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Image Representation
Each digital image consists of a finite number
of elements called picture elements or pixels.

Pixel is the smallest element of an image.

Each pixel has a particular location and

value.

In an 8-bit gray scale image, the value of the

pixel is between 0 and 255.
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Image sensing and acquisition

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Image Sensing and Acquisition
Images are generated by combination of an
illumination source and reflection or absorption
of energy from that source by objects to be
imaged.

Three principal sensor arrangements to

transform illumination energy into digital
images:
 Single imaging sensor
 Line sensor
 Array sensor
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A Simple Image Formation Model
Images are denoted using two-dimensional
functions of the form f(x,y).
The value of f is a positive scalar quantity.

When an image is generated from a physical

process, its values are proportional to energy
radiated by a physical source. Hence, f(x,y)
must be nonzero and finite.
0 < f(x,y) < ∞
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 The function f(x,y) is characterized by two
components:
 Illumination component : The amount of source
illumination incident on the scene being
viewed.
It is denoted by i(x,y).
 Reflectance component: The amount of
illumination reflected by the objects in the
scene.
It is denoted by r(x,y).
f(x,y) is expressed as a product of these two
components.
f(x,y) = i(x,y)r(x,y)
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 where 0 < i(x,y) < ∞
and 0 < r(x,y) < 1
(total absorption) (total reflectance)

The nature of i(x,y) is determined by the

illumination source.
The nature of r(x,y) is determined by the
characteristics of the imaged objects.

For images formed by transmission of the

illumination through a medium (as in X-ray
imaging), reflectivity is replaced by
transmissivity.
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Definition for a Digital Image
Any two dimensional function that bears
information is considered an image.
An image is defined as a two-dimensional
function f(x,y), where x and y are spatial
coordinates.
Amplitude of ‘f’ at any pair of coordinates
(x,y) is called intensity of image at that point.
When x, y and amplitude values of ‘f’ are all
finite, discrete quantities, the image is called
a digital image.
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Image Sampling and Quantization
The output of most sensors is a continuous
voltage waveform whose amplitude and
spatial behaviour are related to the physical
phenomenon being sensed.

This continuous sensed data has to be

converted to digital form.

This involves two processes:

Sampling
Quantization
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Basic Concepts
An image may be continuous with respect to the
x- and y-coordinates and also in amplitude.

To convert it to digital form, the function must be

sampled in both coordinates and in amplitude.

Digitizing the coordinate values is called

sampling.

Digitizing the amplitude values is called

quantization.
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 Generating Digital Image

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 To sample the plot of amplitude values of the
continuous image along AB, take equally spaced
samples along AB. This set of discrete locations
give the sampled function.

The sample values still span a continuous range

of gray-level values. These values also must be
converted to discrete quantities(quantization) to
obtain a digital image.

The gray level scale can be divided into a

number of discrete levels ranging from black to
white.
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 In the figure, one of the eight discrete gray
levels is assigned to each sample.

Starting at the top of the image and carrying

out this procedure line by line for the entire
image will produce a two-dimensional digital
image.

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 The complete MxN image can be represented
using matrix form.

Each element of the matrix array is called an
image element, picture element or pixel.

 f (0,0) f (0,1) ... f (0, M  1) 

 f (1,0) ... ... f (1, M  1) 
f ( x , y ) 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 f ( N  1,0) f ( N  1,1) ... f ( N  1, M  1)

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IMAGE INTERPOLATION
Interpolation is the process of using known
data to estimate values at unknown locations.

Interpolation is used in tasks such as

zooming, shrinking, rotating, and
geometrically correcting digital images.

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 Nearest neighbor interpolation

It assigns to each new location the intensity

of its nearest neighbor in the original image.

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Bilinear interpolation
Four nearest neighbors are used to estimate
the intensity at a given location.
Let (x, y) denote the coordinates of the
location to which an intensity value v(x, y)
need to be assigned.
For bilinear interpolation, the assigned value
is obtained using the equation
v(x, y) = ax + by + cxy + d
where the four coefficients are determined
from the four equations in four unknowns that
can be written using the four nearest
neighbors of
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point (x, y).
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 Bicubic interpolation

Involves the sixteen nearest neighbors of a

point.

The intensity value assigned to point (x, y) is

obtained
using the equation

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Basic Relationships Between Pixels
Neighbours of a pixel
 4-neighbours
(i-1,j-1) (i-1,j) (i-1,j+1)
 diagonal-neighbours
 8-neighbours

Adjacency (i,j-1) (i,j) (i,j+1)

 4-adjacency
 8-adjacency (i+1,j-1) (i+1,j) (i+1,j+1)
 m-adjacency

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 Neighbours of a pixel

A pixel p at (x,y) has 4 horizontal and vertical

neighbours whose coordinates are given by:
(x+1,y) , (x-1,y), (x, y+1) and (x,y-1)
This set of pixels called the 4-neighbours of p
is denoted by N4(p).

Each pixel is of unit distance from p and may

lie outside the digital image for a pixel on the
border of the image.

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 The 4 diagonal neighbours are given by:
(x+1, y+1), (x+1, y-1), (x-1, y+1) and (x-
1, y-1)

This set of pixels is denoted by ND(p). These

points together with the 4-neighbours are called
the 8-neighbours of p, denoted by N8(p).

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 Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions and
Boundaries
Connectivity – Two pixels are connected if
they are neighbours and if their gray levels
satisfy a specified criterion of similarity (eg; if
their gray levels are equal).

Adjacency – Let V be the set of gray-level

values used to define adjacency.
In binary image, V={1}, for adjacency of pixels
with value 1.
a) 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values
from V are 4-adjacent if q is in the set N4(p).
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 b) 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values
from V are 8-adjacent if q is in the set N 8(p).

c) m-adjacency : Two pixels p and q with values

from V are m-adjacent if :
 q is in N4(p)

OR
 q is in ND(p) and the set N4(p)∩N4(q) has no
pixels whose values are from V.

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 Two image subsets S1 and S2 are adjacent if
some pixel in S1 is adjacent to some pixel in S2.

A digital path or curve from pixel p with

coordinates (x,y) to pixel q with coordinates
(s,t) is a sequence of distinct pixels with
coordinates (x0,y0), (x1,y1), …, (xn,yn) where
(x0,y0) = (x,y), (xn,yn) = (s,t) and pixels (xi,yi) and
(xi-1,yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n. n is the
length of the path.

If (x0,y0) = (xn,yn) ,the path is a closed path.

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 We call the paths 4-, 8-, or m-paths
depending on the type of adjacency.

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 Let S be a subset of pixels in an image.

Connectivity: Two pixels p and q are said to be

connected in S if there exists a path between
them consisting entirely of pixels in S.

Connected Component: For any pixel p in S,

the set of pixels that are connected to it in S is
called a connected component of S.

Connected Set: If the set S has only one

connected component, then it is called a
connected set.
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 Region: Let R be a subset of pixels in an
image. If R is a connected set, it is called a
region of the image.

Boundary: Boundary of a region R is the

set of pixels in the region that have one or
more neighbours that are not in R. It forms
a closed path and is a global concept.

Edge: Edges are formed from pixels with

derivative values that exceed a threshold. It is
based on measure of gray-level discontinuity
at a point and is a local concept.
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 Distance Measures

For pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x,y),

(s,t) and (v,w) respectively D is a distance
function if :

a) D(p,q) ≥ 0, (D(p,q) = 0 iff p = q)

b) D(p,q) = D(q,p)
c) D(p,z) ≤ D(p,q) + D(q,z)

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 The Euclidean distance between p and q is defined
as
 De(p,q) = [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2

D4 distance (or city-block distance) between p and

q is defined as
 D4(p,q) = |x-s|+|y-t|
 Pixels with D4 = 1 are 4-neighbours of (x,y).

D8 distance (or chessboard distance) between p

and q is defined as
 D8(p,q) = max(|x-s|,|y-t|)
 Pixels with D8 = 1 are 8-neighbours of (x,y).
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 D4 and D8 distances between p and q are
independent of any paths that might exist
between the points because the distances
involve only the coordinates of the points.

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 Euclidean distance D4 distance D8 distance
(2-norm) (city-block distance) (chessboard distance)

2 2 5 2 52 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 2 2 2 2
5 2 1 2 5 3 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 2
2 1 0 1 2 2 1 0 1 2 2 1 0 1 2
5 2 1 2 5 3 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 2
2 2 5 2 52 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 2 2 2 2

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 Dm distance between p and q is defined as
the shortest m-path between the two points.
a) V= {1}

Dm = 2
pp2p4
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 b) V= {1}

Dm = 3
pp1p2p4
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 c) V= {1}

Dm = 3
pp2p3p4
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 d) V= {1}

Dm = 4
pp1p2p3p4
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Topics for self study
Moire patterns and aliasing

Imaging geometry (Elements of visual

perception – structure of human eye, image
formation in the eye, brightness adaptation
and discrimination)

Basic transformations – translation, scaling,

rotation

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Aliasing

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Moire Patterns

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Structure of human eye

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 Thank You

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