OPERATING SYSTEM
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
What is an Operating System?
A program that acts as an intermediary between a
user of a computer and the computer hardware
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier
Make the computer system convenient to use
Use the computer hardware in an efficient
manner
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components:
Hardware – provides basic computing resources
CPU, memory, I/O devices
Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
Users
People, machines, other computers
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Four Components of a Computer System
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
What Operating Systems Do
Depends on the point of view
Users want convenience, ease of use and good
performance
Don’t care about resource utilization
But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer
must keep all users happy
Users of dedicated systems such as workstations have
dedicated resources but frequently use shared resources
from servers
Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for
usability and battery life
Some computers have little or no user interface, such as
embedded computers in devices and automobiles
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Definition
OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient
and fair resource use
OS is a control program
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors
and improper use of the computer
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Definition (Cont.)
No universally accepted definition.
“The one program running at all times on the
computer” is the kernel.
Everything else is either
a system program (ships with the operating
system) , or
an application program.
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computer Startup
Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or
reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EPROM,
generally known as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts
execution
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect
through common bus providing access to shared
memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices
competing for memory cycles
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
Each device controller is in charge of a particular
device type
Each device controller has a local buffer
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local
buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Storage Definitions and Notation Review
The basic unit of computer storage is the bit.
A bit can contain one of two values, 0 and 1.
All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient chunk of
storage.
Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured
and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes
Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a megabyte
is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes.
Networking measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in
bits (because networks move data a bit at a time).
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
Random access
Typically volatile
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the
device and the computer
Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
Various technologies
Becoming more popular
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
Speed
Cost
Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage
system; main memory can be viewed as a cache for
secondary storage
Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
Provides uniform interface between controller and
kernel
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Storage-Device Hierarchy
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a
computer (in hardware, operating system, software)
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there
Cache smaller than storage being cached
Cache management important design problem
Cache size and replacement policy
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
How a Modern Computer Works
A von Neumann architecture
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computer-System Architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor
Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a
specie task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all
tasks
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
A Dual-Core Design
Multi-chip and multicore
Systems containing all chips
Chassis containing multiple separate systems
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Clustered Systems
Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together
Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby
mode
Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running
applications, monitoring each other
Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
Applications must be written to use parallelization
Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid
conflicting operations
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Clustered Systems
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs
so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven (hardware and software)
Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
Software interrupt (exception or trap):
Software error (e.g., division by zero)
Request for operating system service
Other process problems include infinite
loop, processes modifying each other or
the operating system
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task
CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location
of next instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connection with process management:
Creating and deleting both user and system
processes
Suspending and resuming processes
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
Providing mechanisms for process communication
Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Memory Management
To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in
memory
All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be
in memory.
Memory management determines what is in memory and when
Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
Memory management activities
Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being
used and by whom
Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to
move into and out of memory
Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Storage Management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)
File-System management
Files usually organized into directories
Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
OS activities include
Creating and deleting files and directories
Primitives to manipulate files and directories
Mapping files onto secondary storage
Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Mass-Storage Management
Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or
data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
Proper management is of central importance
Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its
algorithms
OS activities
Free-space management
Storage allocation
Disk scheduling
Some storage need not be fast
Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
Still must be managed – by OS or applications
Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW
(read-write)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Performance of Various Levels of Storage
Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register
Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent
value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy
Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in
hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex
Several copies of a datum can exist
Various solutions covered in Chapter 17
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware
devices from the user
I/O subsystem responsible for
Memory management of I/O including buffering
(storing data temporarily while it is being
transferred), caching (storing parts of data in faster
storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping
of output of one job with input of other jobs)
General device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments – Distributed
Distributed computiing
Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems
networked together
Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Personal Area Network (PAN)
Network Operating System provides features between
systems across network
Communication scheme allows systems to exchange
messages
Illusion of a single system
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments – Client-Server
Client-Server Computing
Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated
by clients
Compute-server system provides an interface to client to
request services (i.e., database)
File-server system provides interface for clients to store
and retrieve files
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments - Peer-to-Peer
Another model of distributed system
P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
Instead all nodes are considered peers
May each act as client, server or both
Node must join P2P network
Registers its service with central
lookup service on network, or
Broadcast request for service and
respond to requests for service via
discovery protocol
Examples include Napster and Gnutella,
Voice over IP (VoIP) such as Skype
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments - Virtualization
Allows operating systems to run applications within other OSes
Vast and growing industry
Emulation used when source CPU type different from target
type (i.e. PowerPC to Intel x86)
Generally slowest method
When computer language not compiled to native code –
Interpretation
Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest
OSes also natively compiled
Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running
applications, all on native WinXP host OS
VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides virtualization
services
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments - Virtualization
Use cases involve laptops and desktops running multiple OSes
for exploration or compatibility
Apple laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as a guest
Developing apps for multiple OSes without having multiple
systems
QA testing applications without having multiple systems
Executing and managing compute environments within data
centers
VMM can run natively, in which case they are also the host
There is no general purpose host then (VMware ESX and
Citrix XenServer)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments - Virtualization
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments – Cloud Computing
Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network
Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as the base
for it functionality.
Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual machines,
petabytes of storage available across the Internet, pay based on usage
Many types
Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via
the Internet (i.e., word processor)
Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application use
via the Internet (i.e., a database server)
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over
Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments – Cloud Computing
Cloud computing environments composed of traditional OSes,
plus VMMs, plus cloud management tools
Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Open-Source Operating Systems
Operating systems made available in source-code format rather
than just binary closed-source
Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights
Management (DRM) movement
Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft
” GNU Public License (GPL)
Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX (including core of
Mac OS X), and many more
Can use VMM like VMware Player (Free on Windows), Virtualbox
(open source and free on many platforms -
http://www.virtualbox.com)
Use to run guest operating systems for exploration
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Thank You
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
