Apply research skills to analyse

study findings
 6.0 DATA ANALYISIS
Data processing and analysis

• Data processing includes editing and coding them

just before they are entered into the computer for
analysis.

• Data analysis is computation of certain measures and

finding relationships supporting or conflicting with
original or new hypotheses.
• The measures and relationships help make
conclusions and generalizations about the population

from which the sample was drawn.

 Data processing
(a) Editing
 Raw data are examined to detect errors, omissions,
contradictions and unreasonable information to be
corrected.
 Editing is done to ensure that the data are accurate,
consistent, uniformly entered and are well arranged to
facilitate coding and tabulation.
 Field data editing should be done daily in the field by going

through every questionnaire to write better and legible

responses without “cooking” any information or guessing

what the respondents would have said.

 Central editing is done in office after all questionnaires are

collected. Obvious errors such as entries made in wrong

places, values recorded in undesirable

 Questionnaires with serious mistakes, while it is impossible to

go back to the field to get them correct, are discarded.

 (b) Coding

• Is the action of assigning numerals or other symbols

to items of a questionnaire so that responses can be
put into a limited number of categories that are

exhaustive.
 Data Analysis

• Data analysis is an important stage of research

process. Raw form convey little meaning to most
people, hence data need to be processed in order to
turn them into useful information.
• Usually data analysis is preceded by a pre-processing
stage where raw data collected may be edited, coded,
classified and tabulated
Basic ideas about data analysis

Statistics is the science of collecting, analyzing,

presenting, and interpreting data. is a set of
concepts, rules, and procedures that help us to:
organize numerical information in the form of
tables, graphs, and charts; understand statistical
techniques underlying decisions that affect our lives
and well-being; and make informed decisions.
Data: are facts, observations, and information that
come from investigations, and are divided into
quantitative data and qualitative data. The former are
numerical and continuous, the latter are wordy and
sometimes called categorical.
 Measures of Centre or of central
tendency
Plotting data in a frequency distribution shows the
general shape of the distribution and gives a general
sense of how the numbers are gathered. Several
statistics can be used to represent the "centre" of the
distribution. There are three measures of central
tendency: Mode, Median and Mean
Mode: is the point or value of X that corresponds to the
highest point on the distribution. If the highest
frequency is shared by more than one value, the
distribution is said to be multimodal.

Median: is the score that divides the distribution into

halves; half of the scores are above the median and half
are below it when the data are arranged in a numerical
order.
• The median location of N numbers can be found by
the formula (N + 1) / 2. When N is an odd number,
For example, in the distribution of numbers (3, 1, 5,
4, 9, 9, 8) the median is determined by first arranging
the numbers from the smallest to the biggest as
follows: 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 9. Then the median = [(7 +
1)/2]th number
• Mean: The mean is the most common measure of
central tendency. It is defined as the average of a
distribution that is computed by summing all the
scores in the distribution (SX) and dividing that sum
by the total number of scores (N).
 Measures of Spread
(Measures of variability)
• Although the average value in a distribution is informative about
how scores are centred in the distribution, the mean, median, and
mode lack context for interpreting those statistics.

• Measures of variability provide information about the degree to

which individual scores are clustered about or deviate from the
average value in a distribution. The commonest measures of central
tendency are the following ones: Range, Variance and standard
deviation.
• Range: is the difference between the highest and
lowest score in a distribution.
• Variance: The variance is a measure based on the
deviations of individual scores from the mean. As
noted in the definition of the mean, however, simply
summing the deviations will result in a value of 0. To
get around this problem the variance is based on
squared deviations of scores about the mean
• Standard deviation - The standard deviation (s or s)
is defined as the positive square root of the variance.
The variance is a measure in squared units and has
little meaning with respect to the data. Thus, the
standard deviation is a measure of variability
expressed in the same units as the data.
A statistic: is a quantity that is calculated from a
sample of data. It is used to give information about
unknown values in the corresponding population.
For example, the average of the data in a sample is
used to give information about the overall average in
the population from which that sample was drawn.
 Kinds of Data Analysis
i) Descriptive analysis
ii) Inferential analysis
Descriptive analysis
• Refers to description of the data from a
particular sample
• Are numerical values obtained from the sample
that gives meaning to the data collected
• Are used to describe characteristics of
population
 Classification of Descriptive Analysis
a) Frequency Distribution
A systematic arrangement of numerical values from
the lowest to the highest or highest to the lowest.
Frequency distribution include frequency
distribution table, graphs. Measure of central
tendency include, mean, median and mode. While
measure of variability including standard deviation
(Variance), the minimum and maximum of variable.
 Uses of Frequency Distribution
Frequency distribution helps us
1. To analyse the data.
2. To estimate the frequencies of the population
on the basis of the sample.
3. To facilitate the computation of various
statistical measures
 Frequency Distribution Table
• A frequency distribution table is one way to
organize data so that it makes more sense.
The data so distributed is called frequency
distribution and the tabular form is called
frequency distribution table.
• The frequency distribution table lists all the
marks and also show how many times
(frequency) they occurred.
• lass interval Frequency
20-25 10
• 25-30 12
• 30-35 8
• 35-40 20
• 40-45 11
• 45-50 4
• 50-55 5
• The simplest frequency distribution table
presents the measurement scale by listing the
different measurement categories (values)
from the highest to the lowest
 Example:
8, 9, 8, 7, 10, 9, 6, 4, 9, 8, 7, 8, 10, 9, 8, 6, 9,7,8,8
X F

10 2

9 5

8 7

7 3

6 2

5 0
 Frequency Distribution Graph
• A frequency distribution graph is basically a
picture of the information available in a
frequency distribution table. Frequency
distribution graph includes;
 Histogram (graph for intervals or ration data)
 Bar graph (graph for nominal or ordinal data)
 Histogram
In order to construct histogram, first list the
numerical scores (the categories of
measurement) along X-values that;
a) The height of the bar correspondents to the
frequency for that category
b) The width of the bar extends to the real
limits of the category.
Measurement and Scaling in Research

• Measurement in research, Measurement

scale, Source of errors in measurement,
Scaling and meaning of scaling and
Importance of scaling.
• The measurement and scaling techniques help
us to:-
 Explain the concepts of measurement and
scaling.
Discuss four levels of measurement scales
Classify and discuss different types of errors
Sources of errors in measurement
a) Measurement
• Measurement is the process of observing and
recording the observations that are collected as
part of research. The recording of the
observations may be in terms of number or
other symbols to characteristics of object,
according to prescribed rules.
b) Scaling
• Scaling is the assignment of objects to
numbers or semantics according to rules. In
scaling, the objects are text statements, usually
statements of attitudes, opinion or feelings.
• Scaling is the branch of measurement that involves
the construction of an instrument that associates
qualitative constructs with quantitative metric units.
Scaling evolved out of efforts in psychology and
education to measure “unmeasurable” constructs like
authoritarianism and self-esteem
 Levels of Measurement Scales
• The level of measurement refers to the
relationship among the values that are
assigned to the attributes, feelings or opinions
for a variable.
• Typically there are four levels of measurement
scales or methods of assigning numbers
a) Nominal scale b) Ordinal scale
c) Interval scale d) Ratio scale
 1) Nominal Scale
• This, the crudest of measurement scales,
classifies individuals, companies, products,
brands or other entities into categories where
no order is implied. Indeed it is often referred
to as a categorical scale.
• The nominal scale does not express any values
or relationships btn variables
 2)Ordinal scale
• Involve the ranking of items along the
continuum of characteristics being scaled. In
this scale, items are classified according to
whether they have more or less of
characteristics.
• The categories have a logical or ordered r’ship.
• Eg. 1) Excellent 2) very good 3) Good 4) Poor
 3) Interval scale
• Is a scale in which numbers are used to rank
attributes.
• The interval or cardinal scale has equal units
of measurement, thus making it possible to
interpret not only the order of scale scores but
also the distance between them.
 4) Ratio Scale
• The highest level of measurement is a ratio scale.
This has the properties of an interval scale.
Examples of variables which are ratio scaled
include weights, lengths and times. Ratio scales
permit the researcher to compare both differences
in scores and the relative magnitude of scores. For
instance the difference between 5 and 10 minutes
is the same as that between 10 and 15 minutes,
and 10 minutes is twice as long as 5 minutes.
 Errors in Measurement
• An error may be defined as the difference
between the measured value and the actual
value. For example, if the two operators use
the same device or instrument for finding the
errors in measurement, it is not necessary that
they may get similar results.
• Sequentially, to understand the concept of
errors in measurement, you should know the
two terms that define the error. They are true
value and the measured value. The true value
is impossible to find out the truth of quantity
by experimental means.
Types of Errors in Measurement
• Generally errors are classified into three types:
systematic errors, random errors and blunders
 Random Errors

• 1) Gross Errors
• Gross errors are caused by mistake in using
instruments or meters, calculating measurement and
recording data results. The best example of these
errors is a person or operator reading pressure gage
1.01N/m2 as 1.10N/m2. It may be due to the person’s
bad habit of not properly remembering data at the
time of taking down reading, writing and calculating,
and then presenting the wrong data at a later time.
 2) Blunders

• Blunders are final source of errors and these

errors are caused by faulty recording or due to
a wrong value while recording a measurement,
or misreading a scale or forgetting a digit
while reading a scale.
 Systematic Errors
• The Systematic errors that occur due to fault in
the measuring device are known as systematic
errors. Usually they are called as Zero Error –
a positive or negative error. These errors can
be detached by correcting the measurement
device. These errors may be classified into
different categories.
• Instrumental Errors
• Environmental Errors
• Observational Errors
• Theoretical
Measurement of the validity and reliability of
instruments for research
 Instruments that are used for data collection in
research include questionnaires for structured
interviews, checklists for semi-structured
interviews (SSI) such as focused group
discussions (FGDs) and scales (like the Likert
scale) for studying attitudinal aspects.
 The Validity
 The validity of a measuring instrument is the
extent to which differences in scores on it
reflect true differences among individuals on
the characteristics that we seek to measure
accurately without errors.
 A valid instrument measures successfully the
phenomenon for which it is intended to
measure, e.g. A spring balance to measure
mass or a measuring cylinder to measure
volumes of chemicals in a laboratory should
be able to measure them accurately and
consistently. Likewise, a questionnaire should
measure successfully variables conceptualized
in a research.
 The Reliability
 The reliability of an instrument is its
consistency in measuring what it is supposed
to measure even if the values it gives are
wrong.
 A valid instrument is reliable whereas a
reliable instrument is not necessarily valid.
Therefore, validity is superior to reliability.
• To establish validity and reliability of social
research instruments, they are pre-tested by
interviewing people with characteristics
similar to those of the people to be studied
before being used for actual data collection.
 If it is found that some variables are not well
measured (that is, if respondents do not give
consistent answers), the instruments (e.g.
questionnaire) are amended to get a second
version for actual data collection. People to
whom the instruments were pre-tested should
not be included in the actual survey.
 Scaling

• Scaling is assigning units of analysis to

categories of a variable (Bernard, 1994: 289).
In most cases, the intent of scaling is
upgrading the level of measurement of
variables from nominal and ordinal to interval
and ratio levels so that more quantitative data
analysis methods can be used, such as linear
correlation, multiple linear regression
 Explain techniques for qualitative data
analysis
Content Analysis
Content analysis is a research tool used to
determine the presence of certain words,
themes, or concepts within some given
qualitative data (i.e. text). Using content
analysis, researchers can quantify and analyze
the presence, meanings, and relationships of
such certain words, themes, or concepts.
 Uses of Content Analysis

• Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an

individual, group or institution
• Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to
communications
• Determine the psychological or emotional state of persons or
groups
• Reveal international differences in communication content
• Reveal patterns in communication content
• Pre-test and improve an intervention or survey prior to launch
• Analyze focus group interviews and open-ended questions to
complement quantitative data
 Types of Content Analysis

1. Conceptual Analysis
• In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for
examination and the analysis involves
quantifying and counting its presence. The
main goal is to examine the occurrence of
selected terms in the data. Conceptual
analysis determines the existence and
frequency of concepts in a text
2. Relational Analysis
• Relational analysis begins like conceptual
analysis, where a concept is chosen for
examination. However, the analysis involves
exploring the relationships between concepts.
Individual concepts are viewed as having no
inherent meaning and rather the meaning is a
product of the relationships among concepts.
 Advantages of Content Analysis

• Directly examines communication using text

• Allows for both qualitative and quantitative analysis
• Provides valuable historical and cultural insights over time
• Allows a closeness to data
• Coded form of the text can be statistically analyzed
• Unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
• Provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use
• When done well, is considered a relatively “exact” research method
• Content analysis is a readily-understood and an inexpensive research
method
• A more powerful tool when combined with other research methods such
as interviews, observation, and use of archival records. It is very useful for
analyzing historical material, especially for documenting trends over time.
 Disadvantages of Content Analysis

• Can be extremely time consuming

• Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis
is used to attain a higher level of interpretation
• Is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to
draw meaningful inferences about the relationships and impacts
implied in a study
• Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex
texts
• Tends too often to simply consist of word counts
• Often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as
the state of things after the text is produced
• Can be difficult to automate or computerize
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
• A type II error is a statistical term used within
the context of hypothesis testing that
describes the error that occurs when one fails
to reject a null hypothesis that is actually
false.
• A type II error produces a false negative, also
known as an error of omission.
• For example, a test for a disease may report a
negative result when the patient is infected
• A type I error rejects the null hypothesis when
it is true.