RESEARCH PROCESS

RESEARCH PROCESS
• Research process consists of series of actions
or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these
steps.
• Whatever type of research or approach is
adopted, there are several fundamental stages
in the research process which are common to
all scientifically based investigation.
 Steps of Research Process
A research process involves the following sequence
of steps:
(i) Formulate and clarify your research topic (i.e.
identifying a research topic)
(ii) Problem definition
(iii)Research objectives and questions
(iv)Critically review the literature
(v)Understand your philosophy and approach
(vi) Formulate research design
(Vii) Negotiate access and address ethical issues
(viii) Data collection
(ix) Data analysis,
(x) Interpretation of results
(xi) Validation
(xii) Write project report and prepare your presentation
Sources of Research Problem
(i) Identifying a research topic
• You may find a research topic suggests
itself as a result of your coursework, job,
interests or general experience. For
example, you may be interested in the
employment problems of fresh graduates
in the society, the difficulties of funding
small businesses, problems of financial
accountabilities in local governments.
 (ii) Problem definition
• A research problem must be identified and defined
without any ambiguity.
• RP is the description of an issue currently existing which
needs to be addressed. It provides the context for the
research study
• The productivity is the core objective of any
organization for its survival in the prevailing
competitive environment. So, each organization is
involved in improving its productivity through
continuous research in each functional area of
management.
 (iii) Research objectives, Questions
and Hypothesis
• Your research may begin with a general focus
research question that generates more detailed
research questions, or you may use your
general focus research question as a base from
which you write a set of research objectives.
• Objectives are generally acceptable to the
research community as evidence of the
researcher’s clear sense of purpose and
direction.
• It is suggested that such objectives would be
better if they pass the well-known SMART
test. That is the objectives are:
• Specific. What precisely do you hope to
achieve from undertaking research?
• Measurable. What measures will you use to
determine whether you have achieved your
objectives? (e.g. secure a career-level first job
in software design)
• Achievable. Are the targets you have set for
yourself achievable given all possible
constraints?
• Realistic. Given all the other demands upon
your time, will you have the time and energy
to complete the research on time?
• Timely. Will you have time to accomplish all
your objectives in the time frame you have
set?
• Research questions are the problems which
are not resolved till date. One should ask the
questions relating to the purpose of the study,
present state of the research, the researcher
must issue the possible means of finding
solution to the research problem.
• A hypothesis is an assumption about a population
of the study. A sample hypothesis is as follows:
• Hypothesis: Age has no influence over achieving
sales target of a salesperson.
• Generally, a hypothesis is formulated for a
situation where the influence is not clear. In the
above case, the hypothesis may be true or false.
The correct fact can be ascertained only after
collecting and analyzing the related data.
Phrasing Research Questions as Research
Objectives
Research questions Research objectives-
Why have organizations introduced team To identify organizations’ objectives for team
briefing? briefing schemes

How can the effectiveness of team briefing To establish suitable effectiveness criteria for team
schemes be measured? briefing schemes

Has team briefing been effective? To describe the extent to which the effectiveness
criteria for team briefing have been met
How can the effectiveness of team briefing (a)To determine the factors associated with the
be explained effectiveness criteria for team briefing being
met

(b)To estimate whether some of those factors

are more influential than other factors
Can the explanation be generalized? To develop an explanatory theory that associates
certain factors with the effectiveness of team
briefing schemes
 (iv) Critically reviewing literature
• A literature review can be defined as the
selection of available documents on the topic,
which contain information, ideas, data and
evidence written from a particular standpoint
to fulfill certain aims or express certain views
on the nature of the topic and how it is to be
investigated
• The literature review forms an important
chapter in the research report, where its
purpose is to provide the background to and
justification for the research undertaken.
• literature review helps you to formulate your
research questions; at the same time, you
begin to identify the related research studies
to your own and the methodology that you
might adopt for your
 (v) Determining how to conduct the
study
• Your general approach to the research is
known as your research paradigm/philosophy.
The term paradigm refers to the progress of
scientific practice based on people’s
philosophies and assumptions about the
world and the nature of knowledge; in this
context, about how research should be
conducted.
 (vi) Formulate research design
• A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of
investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to
research questions or problems, OR
• The research design is the blueprint for fulfilling
objectives and answering questions. Selecting a
design may be complicated by the availability of a
large variety of methods, techniques, procedures,
protocols and sampling plans. For example, you may
decide on a secondary data study, case study,
survey, experiment or simulation.
The research design provides complete
guidelines for data collection. Following are the
essence of a research design:
• Selection of the research approach
• Design of sampling plan
• Design of experiment
• Design of questionnaire
 Design of sampling plan
• Another step in planning the design is to
identify the target population and select the
sample if a census is not desired. The
researcher must determine who and how
many people to interview, what and how
many events to observe, or what and how
many records to inspect
 A SAMPLE
• A sample is part of the target population,
carefully selected to represent that
population. When researchers undertake
sampling studies, they are interested in
estimating one or more population values
and/ or testing one or more statistical
hypotheses.
 Sample:
• Sample is a small group element drawn from
population under study representing the same
variables.

Need of Sampling:
• Sometime it is not possible to examine all items in
population.
• Sometimes it is possible to obtain sufficient accurate
result which can be generalized
• sampling is economic.
 Objective of Sampling:
• To obtain accurate and reliable information
about universe.
• To minimize the cost
• To save time
• To save energy.
• To set the limits of accuracy of such estimates
 Concepts in Sampling
• Population-totality of the objects or individuals
regarding inferences are made in a sampling
study.
• Sample-smaller representation of a large whole.
• Sampling- is a process of selecting a subset of
randomised number of the members of the
population of a study
• Sampling unit-is a geographical one (state,
district)
• Sample size-number of items selected for the
study
 Characteristics of Good sample
• The sample should be true representative of the
population.
• No bias in selecting sample
• Quality of the sample should be same
• Regulating conditions should be same for all
individual
• Sampling needs to be adequate
• Estimate the sampling error
• Sample study should be applicable to all items
 Types of Sampling
Broadly can be classified as
a) Probability Sampling
b) Non-probability Sampling
• Probability Sampling:
• Probability sampling provides a scientific
technique of drawing samples from population
according to some laws, of chance in which each
unit has some definite pre-assigned probability of
being chosen in sample.
 Non-Probability Sampling:
• It is purely based on personal judgment.
Under this method a desired number of
sample units are selected deliberately or
purposely depending upon object of the
enquiry so that only the important items
representing the true characteristics of
population are included
 Probability sampling:
(i)Simple random sampling
(ii)Systematic sampling
(iii)Stratified random sampling
(iv)Cluster sampling
(v)Multi-stage sampling
 Simple Random Sampling:
• A random sampling is a sample selected in
such a way that every item in the population
has an equal chance of being included.
• It’s more suitable for homogeneous and
comparatively large groups.
 Stratified Random Sampling:
• In this population is divided into groups
(Strata) according to geographical, sociological
or economic characteristics.
• To obtain more efficient and accurate results
when population is heterogeneous in variables
under study.
 Systematic Sampling:
• Sample is taken from a list prepared on a
systematic arrangement either on the basis of
alphabetic order or on house number or any
other method. In this method only the first
sample unit is selected.
 Cluster Sampling:
• Under this method the population is divided
into some recognizable sub-divisions which
are termed as clusters and a simple random
sample of these clusters is drawn and then the
survey of each and every unit in the selected
cluster is made.
 Multi-Stage Sampling:
• In this sampling is carried out in various
stages. Here the population is regarded as
made of a number of primary units, each of
which is further composed of number of
secondary stage which is further composed of
third unit and so on till we reached the
desired sampling unit.
 Non-probability sampling
(i)Convenience sampling
(ii)Judgment sampling
(iii)Quota sampling
(iv)Snowball sampling
 Judgmental/Purpose sampling:
• Also, it is called a deliberate or judgment
sampling.
• In this when the researcher deliberately
selects certain units for study from the
universe is known as purpose sampling.
 Quota sampling:
• It is a special type of stratified sampling. In this
method, the population is stratified on some
basis, preferably on the characteristics of
population under study. After this the number
of sample units to be selected from each
stratum
 Convenience Sampling:
• It is known as unsystematic, careless,
accidental or opportunistic sampling.
• Under this sample is selected according to
convenience of the investigator. This may have
the base of availability of data, accessibility of
units.
 Snowball Sampling
• It refers to identifying some one who meets
the criteria for inclusion in the study.
• The selection of addition respondents is based
on referrals from the initial respondents.
(vii) Negotiate access and address ethical
issues
 Access and ethics are critical aspects for the
conduct of research.
 Insufficient attention may therefore be paid to
gaining access and even less to the likelihood
of ethical concerns arising in relation to the
conduct of the research project.
 These are aspects that require careful
attention at the outset of any research project.
 Ethical concerns will emerge as you plan
your research, seek access to
organizations and to individuals, collect,
analyze and report your data.
 Ethics refers to the appropriateness of your
behavior in relation to the rights of those
who become the subject of your work, or
are affected by it.
• Define research ethics
• The conduct of your research may be guided
by a code of ethics. A code of ethics will
provide you with a statement of principles and
procedures for the conduct of your research.
• You may also be required to submit your
research proposal
 Ethical issues that affect the research
process generally
• Privacy of possible and actual participants
• Voluntary nature of participation and the right
to withdraw partially or completely from the
process
• Consent and possible deception of participants
• Maintenance of the confidentiality of data
provided by identifiable participants and their
anonymity
• Reactions of participants to the way in which
you seek to collect data
• Effects on participants of the way in which you
use, analyze and report your data
• Behavior and objectivity of the researcher
(viii) Data collection
• Data are the basic input to any decision-
making in a business. The processing of data
gives statistics of importance of the study.
Data can be classified into primary data and
secondary data.
• The different methods which are used for
primary data collection are observation
method, personal interview, telephone
interview and mail survey.
• The secondary data are collected from sources
which have already been created for the
purpose of first-time use and future uses. The
secondary data can be obtained from internal
sources and external sources.
 (ix) Data analysis
• After data are collected, proper tools and
techniques should be used for classification
and analysis of data.
• The tools of classification of data are
frequency distribution, cumulative frequency
distribution, relative frequency distribution
and charts. Charts are graphical
representation of data.
• Different types of charts are pie chart, bar
chart, stacked bar chart, histogram, frequency.
The classification tools serve as data
presentation techniques for clear
interpretations.
 (x) Interpretation of results
• Researchers must interpret these finding in
light of the client’s research question or
determine if the results are consistent with
their hypotheses and theories.
 (xii) Writing the report
• It is at the writing up stage that many students
experience problems, usually because they
have left it until the very last minute! It is
important to start writing up your research in
draft as soon as you start the early stages of
the project, and continue to do so until it is
completed.
• COMPONENTS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
Chapter/section Description
Introduction A precise explanation of what research is about, why it is important
and interesting; the research questions or hypotheses should also
be stated

Literature review A critical analysis of what other researchers have said on the
subject and where your project fits in.

Methodology An explanation of why you collected certain data, what data you
collected, from where you collected it, when you collected it, how
you collected it and how you analyzed it

Results A presentation of your research results

Analysis and discussion An analysis of your results showing the contribution to knowledge
and pointing out any weaknesses/limitations

Conclusions A description of the main lessons to be learnt from your study and
what future research should be conducted

References A detailed, alphabetical or numerical list of the sources from which

information has been obtained and which have been cited in the
text

Appendices Detailed data referred to but not shown elsewhere.