Communication Models

What they are and how they work?

Why study them?
• Clarifies the process. This helps us better understand how
communication happens and where it can go wrong.
• Improve comm skills. Identify barriers, improve message quality and
choose better channels.
• Helps in analyzing real-life situations. frameworks to analyze
communication in everyday life
US communication theorist Harold
D. Lasswell
• “Who says what to whom with what effect?”
What is a Comm Model
• models of communication provide us with a visual representation of
the different aspects of a communication situation
Question
• Do you remember the last time you had a
misunderstanding? What might’ve caused it?
3 categories
• Linear
• Interactive
• Transactional
Linear Models
• communication takes place only in one direction
Aristotle’s Model
• dates back to 300 BC, Aristotle’s model was designed to examine how
to become a better and more persuasive communicator.
• Primary focus on the sender, passive receiver
3 Elements
• Ethos — Defines the credibility of the speaker. The speaker gains
credibility, authority, and power by being an expert in a field of their
choice.
• Pathos — Connects the speaker with the audience through different
emotions (anger, sadness, happiness, etc.)
• Logos — Signifies logic. Namely, it is not enough for the speech to be
interesting — it needs to follow the rules of logic.
Aristotle’s Communication Situation
• Speaker,
• Speech,
• Occasion,
• Target audience, and
• Effect.

The professor is at the center of attention, whereas the audience — her

students — are merely passive listeners. Nevertheless, her message
influences them and makes them act accordingly.
Laswell’s Model
• communication as the transmission of a message with the effect as
the result
• If any of the elements’ change, the effect also changes.
Model aims to answer the following
questions
• Who created the message? Sender
• What did they say? Message
• What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)? Channel
• To whom did they say it? Receiver
• What effect did it have on the receiver? Feedback

An infomercial on TV
Shannon-Weaver Model
• Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed their
work during the Second World War in the Bell Telephone
Laboratories. They aimed to discover which channels are most
effective for communicating.
• Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed their
work during the Second World War in the Bell Telephone
Laboratories. They aimed to discover which channels are most
effective for communicating.
Noise
• “Anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and
reception that is not intended by the source.”
• A conversation interrupted by another person
Feedback
• the transfer of the receiver’s reaction back to the sender
• Senders modify their performance according to the reaction of the
receivers
• helps the receiver feel involved in the communication process
Berlo’s SMCR
The source
• Communication skills — First and foremost, the source needs good communication skills
to ensure the communication will be effective. The speaker should know when to pause,
what to repeat, how to pronounce a word, etc.
• Attitude — Secondly, the source needs the right attitude. Without it, not even a great
speaker would ever emerge as a winner. The source needs to make a lasting impression on
the receiver(s).
• Knowledge — Here, knowledge does not refer to educational qualifications but to the
clarity of the information that the source wants to transfer to the receiver.
• Social system — The source should be familiar with the social system in which the
communication process takes place. That would help the source not to offend anyone.
• Culture — Last but not least, to achieve effective communication, the source needs to be
acquainted with the culture in which the communication encounter is taking place. This is
especially important for cross-cultural communication.
The Message
• Content — Simply put, this is the script of the conversation.
• Elements — Speech alone is not enough for the message to be fully
understood. That is why other elements have to be taken into account:
gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc.
• Treatment — The way the source treats the message. They have to be
aware of the importance of the message so that they can convey it
appropriately.
• Structure — The source has to properly structure the message to ensure
the receiver will understand it correctly.
• Code — All the elements, verbal and nonverbal, need to be accurate if you
do not want your message to get distorted and misinterpreted.
The Channel
• Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model identifies all our senses as the
channels that help us communicate with one another.
The Receiver
• Same with the source
Interactive Models
• interactive communication models refer to two-way communication
with feedback
• However, feedback is slow and indirect
• internet-based and mediated communication such as telephone
conversations, letters
The Osgood-Schramm model

• there is no difference between a sender and a receiver. Both parties

are equally encoding and decoding the messages
• Information is of no use until put into words and conveyed
4 Principles
• Communication is circular. Individuals involved in the communication
process are changing their roles as encoders and decoders.
• Communication is equal and reciprocal. Both parties are equally engaged
as encoders and decoders.
• The message requires interpretation. The information needs to be
properly interpreted to be understood.
• As shown in the Osgood-Schramm communication model diagram below,
this model proposes 3 steps in the process of communication:
• Encoding,
• Decoding, and
• Interpreting.
Westley and Mclean’s Model
Example
• When witnessing a road accident what would you do?
• the communication process in this example does not start with you,
but with the road accident you have witnessed.
• pay attention to the social and cultural contexts that influence our
acts of communication
Elements
•A (Advocate/Communicator) – the person who responds to an
event or gathers information and then communicates it.
•X (Event) – something in the environment that triggers a response
or message.
•X1, X2, X3… represent multiple events or stimuli.
•C (Gatekeeper) – often a media editor, teacher, or authority
figure who filters or shapes the message before it reaches the
audience.
•B (Receiver/Audience) – the individual or group that receives the
message.
•Feedback (fBA) – the response of B that goes back to A, helping
to shape future messages.
•Channels – the means through which messages are transmitted
(TV, newspaper, internet, face-to-face, etc.)
Flow
• Events occur (X1, X2, X3) in the environment.
• The advocate (A) perceives these events and selects which ones are
worth communicating.
• Sometimes, a gatekeeper (C) may alter or mediate the message.
• The message is sent to the receiver (B) through a chosen channel.
• The receiver responds, giving feedback to A, thus making
communication circular and interactive.
Example in mass comm
• A natural disaster (X1) occurs.
• A journalist (A) gathers information.
• The editor (C) approves and edits the news report.
• The public (B) watches the news.
• Public opinion or comments on social media (fBA) serve as feedback.
Transactional Comm Models
• view communication as a transaction, meaning that it is a cooperative
process in which communicators co-create the process of
communication, thereby influencing its outcome and effectiveness
• communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process
• we do not just exchange information during our interactions, but
create relationships, form cross-cultural bonds, and shape our
opinions
Barlund’s Model
• "Communication is a simultaneous process."
Both participants are always sending and receiving messages —
including verbal, non-verbal, intentional, and unintentional signals.
Core Components
• Sender-Receiver (used instead of just "Sender" and "Receiver")
• Each participant plays both roles at the same time.
• Messages
• Can be verbal or non-verbal
• Sent through multiple channels (tone, body language, words, gestures)
• Channels
• The medium through which the message is transmitted (e.g., face-to-face, phone, gestures)
• Noise
• Any interference that disrupts the message.
• External Noise: traffic, background chatter
• Internal Noise: stress, bias, misunderstanding
• Feedback
• Continuous and simultaneous — even a nod, frown, or silence is feedback.
• Context
• Physical, psychological, social, and cultural environments where communication happens.
• Field of Experience
• Each participant’s background, beliefs, values, and experiences — which influence how messages are sent, interpreted, and
understood.
• Imagine two students talking during a group project:
• Student A raises their eyebrows and says, “Are you done with your
part?”
• Student B shrugs, laughs nervously, and says, “Not yet…”
• Here:
• Both are sending verbal and non-verbal cues at the same time.
• Each is influenced by context (deadlines, stress) and their own field of
experience (personality, study habits).
• Even a pause or facial expression is part of the feedback loop.
Key Features That Make It “Transactional”:

Feature Meaning
Simultaneous Both people send and receive at once
Continuous No clear beginning or end — it flows
Mutual Meaning is created together, not just transmitted
Contextual Environment and experience shape understanding
Dance’s Helical Model
• Imagine a helix — like a spinning spring or spiral staircase:
• It starts at a single point (initial communication)
• As it moves upward, the loops get wider, showing how
communication grows more complex with time and experience
• Think of a child learning to speak:
• At first, communication is simple: crying, smiling
• As they grow, they learn words, then sentences
• Eventually, they can express ideas, emotions, beliefs
• Each interaction builds on previous ones, and communication skills
develop in a spiral-like progression.
Takeaway
• Linear Model – “Communication is a thing.”
• Interactive Model – “Communication is Interactive.”
• Transactional Model – “Communication shapes our realities.”