Motivation Theories

Motivation Principles

 Theory X and Y

Content / Need Process Theory Reinforcement

Theory • Equity Theory Theory
• Expectancy
• Maslow’s Need Theory • Positive
Hierarchy • Goal Setting Reinforcement
• Herzberg’s Two- Theory • Negative
Factor Theory • Learning Reinforcement
• Alderfer’s ERG Theory • Punishment
Theory
• McClelland’s
 Motivation
 Motivation is the processes that account for an
individual’s Direction, level and persistence of
effort toward attaining a goal.
 In
simple words: Motivation is what drives a
person to choose a goal, how hard they work
toward it, and how long they keep trying.
 Motivation is the internal force that directs an
individual’s behaviour towards achieving goals,
determines the level of effort they put in, and
sustains that effort over time. This makes
motivation a key factor in improving productivity,
Motivation
 Direction  Level refers  Persistence
refers to an to the amount refers to the
individual’s of effort a length of time a
choice when + person puts + person sticks =
presented forth. with a given Motivation
with a action.
number of
possible
alternatives.

  A marathon runner
An employee  An employee works
chooses to take an hard, or sincerely or keeps training daily
online leadership overtime with high for months, even in
course rather than energy to meet a bad weather.
spending time on project deadline.  A student continues
Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X Theory Y
 Douglas McGregor, an
American social
psychologist, proposed
his famous X-Y theory in
1960.
 Theory X and theory Y
are still referred to
commonly in the field
of management and
motivation.
 Theory X: Assumes
people dislike work,
avoid responsibility,
and need strict
supervision and control
to perform.
 Theory Y: Assumes
people enjoy work, are
self-motivated, and can
take responsibility if
given the right
conditions.
Theory X and Theory Y
 Management Style
Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X Theory Y

Employee is lazy Employee is not

lazy
Managers must
closely supervise Must create work
setting to build
Create strict rules initiative
& defined rewards
Provide authority
to workers
 Theory X and Theory Y
Limitations:
 Describes two CONTRASTING / EXTREME model of
motivation.
 It
is based on the perceptions managers hold on their
employees.
 Employees who are demotivated can be motivated
with right reward and guidance.
 Managers need to alter their managerial style
according the subordinates.
Content / Need Theory
Content Theory:
“focus primarily on individual needs—the
physiological or psychological deficiencies that
we feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate.”

 Managers’job is to create a work environment that

responds positively to individual needs
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

 “within every human being, there exists a hierarchy of five needs”

 Although no need is ever fully fulfilled, a substantially satisfied need no longer

motivates. Thus, as each becomes substantially satisfied, the next one
becomes dominant.

 “So if you want to motivate someone, according to Maslow, you need to

understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on
satisfying needs at or above that level, moving up the steps”
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization
Satisfied
internally
Upper
(within
Order
the Esteem
Needs
person)

Social

Satisfied
externally Safety Lowe
(by things r
such as Orde
pay, r
tenure). Physiological Need
s
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiologic Safety: Social: Esteem: Self-

al: Internal Actualizati
physical Affection, factors such on: Highest
Most basic of safety and belongingnes as self-
all human need level;
security, s, respect, need to fulfill
needs; the family, acceptance, achievement,
need for oneself; the
stability, and and and external need to
food, sleep, economic friendship factors such
water, shelter realize one’s
security and as status, potential, to
etc. stability in recognition, grow, to be
the physical and creative, and
and inter- attention. to accomplish
personal
events
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Here are the main limitations of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

•Rigid hierarchy – It assumes needs must be satisfied in a strict

order, which is not always true.

•Cultural differences – The theory is based on Western values

and may not apply the same way in other cultures.

•Individual differences – People may not follow the same pattern

of needs; priorities differ.
•Over-simplification – Human motivation is more complex than
just five levels.

•Overlapping needs – In reality, needs may be pursued

simultaneously rather than step by step.
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
(Hygiene Theory)
 Psychologist Frederick Herzberg wondered:
“What do people want from their jobs?”

 He asked people to describe, in detail, situations in which they felt

exceptionally good or bad about their jobs.
 The responses led Hertzberg to categorize Two Factors of job
motivations:
1. Hygiene Factors
2. Motivational Factors
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
(Hygiene Theory)
Hygiene Factors Motivational Factors
• Career Advancement
• Quality of supervision
• Personal growth
• Rate of pay
• Company policies • Recognition
• Working conditions • Responsibility
•Job security • Achievement
•Work itself
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Motivator
factors are
sources of
job
satisfaction

Hygiene factors
are sources of job
dissatisfaction.
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
 This model summarizes Maslow’s five levels of need into only three levels
based on the core needs of existence, relatedness and growth

 Existence needs are concerned with sustaining human existence

and survival and cover
physiological and safety needs of a material nature.
 Relatedness needs are concerned with relationships to the
social environment and cover love or belonging, affiliation and
meaningful interpersonal relationships
 Growth needs are concerned with the development of potential
and cover self-esteem and self-actualisation
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
 Like Maslow, Alderfer suggests that individuals progress
through the hierarchy from existence needs to relatedness
needs to growth needs as the lower-level needs become
satisfied.
 However ,Alderfer suggests these needs are more a range than
hierarchical levels. More than one need may be activated at the
same time.
 Individuals may also progress down the hierarchy.
 lower-level needs do not have to be satisfied before a higher-
level need emerges as a motivating influence.
 McClelland’s Theory of Needs
 Three human needs

Need for Need for power: Need for

achievement: affiliation:
desire to control
desire to do desire to
others, to
something better
influence their establish and
or more
efficiently, to behaviors, or to maintain
solve problems, be responsible friendly and
or to master for others. warm relations
complex tasks. with others
 Motivation Principles :
Reinforcement Theory
Process Theory

Focus on the thought or cognitive processes

that take place within the minds of people and
that influence their behavior.

 Whereas a content approach may identify job security

as an important need for an individual, a process
approach probes further to identify why the person
behaves in particular ways relative to available
rewards and work opportunities.
Equity Theory/Organizational
Justice
 Equity theory is based on the phenomenon of social
comparison and is best applied to the workplace.

A theory that says that individuals compare their job

inputs and outcomes with those of others and then
respond to eliminate any inequities.

 Output: salary levels, raises, recognition

 Input: effort, experience, education, competence
There are four referent comparisons:
 1. Self–inside: An employee’s experiences in a different
position inside the employee’s current organization.
 2. Self–outside: An employee’s experiences in a situation or
position outside the employee’s current organization.
 3. Other–inside: Another individual or group of individuals
inside the employee’s organization.
 4. Other–outside: Another individual or group of individuals
outside the employee’s organization.
Equity Theory

 Feltnegative inequity exists when an individual

feels that he or she has received relatively less than
others have in proportion to work inputs. It creates
anger, demotivation

 Feltpositive inequity exists when an individual

feels that he or she has received relatively more
than others have in proportion to work inputs.
“Creates guilt.”
Equity Theory

Equity Theory
Ratio Employee’s
Comparison* Perception
Outcomes A < Outcomes B Inequity (Under-Rewarded)
Inputs A Inputs B
Outcomes A = Outcomes B Equity
Inputs A Inputs B
Outcomes A > Outcomes B Inequity (Over-Rewarded)
Inputs A Inputs B

*Where A is the employee, and B is a relevant other or referent.

Equity Theory

 When either feelings exist, the individual will likely engage in

certain behaviors to restore a sense of equity.
 1. Change inputs (exert less effort if underpaid or more if
overpaid).
 2. Change outcomes (individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can
increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower
quality).
 3. Distort perceptions of self
 4. Distort perceptions of others
 5. Choose a different referent
 6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy theory argues that the strength of our
tendency to act a certain way depends on the
strength of our expectation of a given outcome and
its attractiveness.

 Employees are motivated if the expected

outcome is attractive / desirable to them
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy Model of Motivation

Effort Performance Reward

Perceived
Perceived effort–
performance– Perceived
performance
reward value of reward
probability
probability
“If I work hard, “Will I be rewarded of “What rewards
will I get the job I get the job well do I value?”
done?” done?”
Expectancy Theory
Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory

• Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be

rewarded.
• Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels.
• Determine the outcomes of employees value.
• Link desired outcomes/reward to targeted levels of
performance.
• Make sure changes in outcomes/reward are large enough to
motivate high effort.
• Monitor the reward system for inequities.
Goal-Setting Theory
 Working towards a specific goal is more motivating than generalized goal
such as “do your best.

 Evidence strongly suggests that specific goals increase performance; that

difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy
goals; and that feedback leads to higher performance than does non
feedback.

 Harder goals generates more motivation and effort: Do you study as

hard for an
easy exam as you do for a difficult one?
Goal-Setting Theory
Implementing Goal-Setting
Management by Objectives (MBO): set goals that are
specific, realstic and measurable.
Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement Theory
 controlling an individual’s behavior by manipulating
its consequences.

 “An individual’s behavior is a function of its consequences"

 Behavior is a “law of effect”, i.e, individual’s

behavior with positive consequences tends to be
repeated, but individual’s behavior with negative
consequences tends NOT to be repeated
Reinforcement Theory
 Positive Reinforcement
The administration of positive consequences that tend to
increase the likelihood of repeating the desirable behavior in
similar settings.

 Negative Reinforcement
The withdrawal of negative consequences which tend to
increase the likelihood of repeating the desirable behavior in
similar settings.
Reinforcement Theory
 Reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the
internal state of individual, i.e., the inner feelings
and drives of individuals are ignored by Skinner.
 Thistheory focuses totally on what happens to an
individual when he takes some action. Thus,
according to Skinner, the external environment of
the organization must be designed effectively and
positively so as to motivate the employee.
Application of Motivation
Principles
Job Satisfaction: A general attitude (not a behavior) toward one’s job; a
positive feeling of one's job resulting from an evaluation of its
characteristics

 The five facets of job satisfaction measured by Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
are:

 The work itself: responsibility, interest, and growth

 Quality of supervision: technical help and social support
 Relationships with co-workers: social harmony and respect
 Promotion opportunities: chances for further advancement
 Pay: adequacy of pay and perceived equity vis-à-vis others
Application of Motivation
Principles
 Job rotation - Periodic shifting of an employee from one
task to another.

 Job enlargement (horizontal )- Increasing the number and

variety of tasks that an individual performed

 Job enrichment - Refers to vertical expansion of jobs. An

enriched job organizes tasks so as to allow the worker to do
a complete activity, increases the freedom, independence,
and responsibility.