Chapter 1 microprocessor introduction

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Chapter 1
Introduction to Microprocessor (
Microprocessor Architecture & Pin
diagram)

Introduction
ROM RAM
I/O
interface
I/O
devices
CPU
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Computer: A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and
manipulates data/information, and provides output in a useful format.
Basic computer system consist of a CPU, memory and I/O unit.
Block diagram of a basic computer system
Address bus
Data bus Control
bus

Basic Concepts of Microprocessors
 Microcomputer:- It is a programmable machine. The two principal
characteristics of a computer are:
 Responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.
 It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program)
 Its main components are
 CPU
 Input & Output devices
 Memory
 Microprocessor:- It is a programmable VLSI chip which includes ALU, register
circuits & control circuits. Its main units are-
 ALU
 Registers
 Control Unit
 Microcontroller:- Silicon chip which includes microprocessor, memory & I/O in
a single package
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Block Diagram
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Microcomputer
Microprocessor Microcontroller

Definition of the Microprocessor
 Microprocessor is a Programmable, Clock driven, Register based,
Electronic device that reads instruction from a storage device, takes the
data from input unit and process the data according to the instructions
and provides the result to the output unit.
 Programmable- Perform Different set operation on the data depending on the
sequence of instructions supplied by the programmer.
 Clock Driven – Whole task is divided into basic operations, are divided into
precise system clock periods.
 Register Based – Storage element
 Electronic Device – fabricated on a chip
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Microprocessor Based System with bus
Architecture
 ALU:- Arithmetic and logical operations like add, subtraction, AND & OR.
 Register Array: - Store data during the execution of program.
 Control Unit: Provides necessary timing & control signal. It controls the flow of data
between microprocessor and peripherals.
*Microprocessor is one component of microcomputer.
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• Memory:
 Stores information such as instructions and data in binary format (0 and 1).
 Sub-system” of microprocessor-based system. sub-system includes the registers
inside the microprocessor .
 Read Only Memory (ROM): used to store programs that do not need
alterations.
Random Access Memory (RAM) (R/WM): used to store programs
that can read and altered like programs and data.
• Input/output: Communicates with the outside world.
• System Bus: Communication path between the microprocessor and peripherals.
 group of wires to carry bits.

How does a Microprocessor works
 To execute a program, the microprocessor “reads” each
instruction from memory, “interprets” it, then “executes or
perform” it.
 The right name for the cycle is
 Fetch
 Decode
 Execute
 This sequence is continued until all instructions are
performed.
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Machine Language
 To communicate with computer, instruction is given in binary language.
 MP has 8 bit data so 2^8 = 256 combinations. So difficult to write
programs in set of 0’s and 1’s .
for eg:
 0011 1100 – is an instruction that increments the number in accumulator by 1
 1000 0000– is an instruction that add the number in register B to the accumulator
content , and keep the result in A.
So it is very tedious and error inductive. For convenience, written in Hexadecimal
code. For example 0011 1100 is equivalent to 3C H
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8085 Assembly Language
 Even program is written in Hexa decimal .. It is difficult to understand.
 Program is written in mnemonic.
For E.g.: binary code 0011 1100 (3C H in hexadecimal) is represented by INR
A
 INR A –INR stands for Increment, A is accumulator… this symbol suggest the
operation of incrementing the accumulator by 1
Similarly 1000 0000 is equivalent ( 80 H) is represented as
 ADD B– ADD stands for addition and B represents content in register B. this symbol
suggest that addition of the number in register B to the accumulator content , and
keep the result in A.
***So MP has 246 such bit pattern amounting to 74 different instruction for
performing various operations
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Features of Microprocessor- 8085
 8085 is developed by INTEL
 8 bit microprocessor: can accept 8 bit data simultaneously
 Operates on single +5V D.C. supply.
 Designed using NMOS technology
 6200 transistor on single chip
 It provides on chip clock generator, hence it does not require external clock
generator.
 Operates on 3MHz clock frequency.
 8bit multiplexed address/data bus, which reduce the number of pins.
 16address lines, hence it can address 2^16 = 64 K bytes of memory
 It generates 8 bit I/O addresses, hence it can access 2^8 = 256 I/O ports.
 5 hardware interrupts i.e. TRAP, RST6.5, RST5.5, RST4.5, and INTR
 It provides DMA.
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Internal Architecture (functional block diagram)of 8085

8085 Architecture…….cont…
8085 architecture consists of following blocks:
1. Register Array
2. ALU & Logical Group
3. Instruction decoder and machine cycle encoder, Timing and control
circuitry
4. Interrupt control Group
5. Serial I/O control Group
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8085 Architecture …… cont….
1. Registers Array : 14 register out of which 12 are 8 bit capacity and 2 of 16 bit. Classify into 4 types
(a) General purpose register: (user accessible)
 B,C,D,E,H,L are 8 bit register.(can be used singly)
 Can also be used for 16-bit register pairs- BC, DE & HL.
 Used to store the intermediate data and result
 H & L can be used as a data pointer(holds memory address)
(b) Special Purpose Register[A, Instruction Register and Flag]
(b.1) Accumulator (A): (user accessible)
 8 bit register
 All the ALU operations are performed with reference to the contents of Accumulator.
 Result of an operation is stored in A.
 Store 8 bit data during I/O transfer
(b.2) Instruction Register: (user not accessible)
 When an instruction is fetched from memory, it is loaded in IR. Then transferred to the
decoder for decoding.
 It is not programmable and can not be accessed through any instruction.
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(b.3) Flag Register(F): (user accessible)
 8 bit Register
 Indicates the status of the ALU operation.
 ALU includes 5 flip flop, which are set or reset after an operation
according to data conditions of the result in the accumulator.
(Flag Register)
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Flag Register…… cont….
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Flag Significance
C or CY (Carry) CY is set when an arithmetic operation generates a carry
out, otherwise it is 0 (reset)
P (Parity) P= 1; if the result of an ALU operation has an even number
of 1’s in A;
P= 0; if number of 1 is odd.
AC (Auxiliary carry) Similar to CY,
AC= 1 if there is a carry from D3 to D4 Bit
AC= 0 if there is a no carry from D3 to D4 Bit
(not available for user)
Z(zero) Z = 1; if result in A is 00H
0 otherwise
S(Sign) S=1 if D7 bit of the A is 1(indicate the result is -ive)
S= 0 if D7 bit of the A is 0(indicate the result is +ive)

(c) Temporary Register[ W, Z, Temporary data register]
 Internally used by the MP(user not accessible)
(c.1) W and Z register:
 8 bit capacity
 Used to hold temporary addresses during the execution of some
instructions
(c.2) Temporary data register:
 8 bit capacity
 Used to hold temporary data during ALU operations.
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(d) Pointer Register or special purpose [SP, PC]
(d.1) Stack Pointer(SP)
 16 bit address which holds the address of the data present at the top of the stack
memory
 It is a reserved area of the memory in the RAM to store and retrieve the temporary
information.
 Also hold the content of PC when subroutines are used.
 When there is a subroutine call or on an interrupt. ie. pushing the return address on a
jump, and retrieving it after the operation is complete to come back to its original
location.
(d.3) Program Counter(PC)
 16 bit address used for the execution of program
 Contain the address of the next instruction to be executed after fetching the instruction
it is automatically incremented by 1.
 Not much use in programming, but as an indicator to user only.
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In addition to register MP contains some latches and buffer
 Increment and decrement address latch
 16 bit register
 Used to increment or decrement the content of PC and SP
 Address buffer
 8 bit unidirectional buffer
 Used to drive high order address bus(A8 to A15)
 When it is not used under such as reset, hold and halt etc this buffer is used
tristate high order address bus.
 Data/Address buffer
 8 bit bi-Directional buffer
 Used to drive the low order address (A0 to A7) and data (D0 to D7) bus.
 Under certain conditions such as reset, hold and halt etc this buffer is used
tristate low order address bus.
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(2) ALU & Logical Group: it consists ALU, Accumulator, Temporary
register and Flag Register.
(a) ALU
 Performs arithmetic and logical operations
 Stores result of arithmetic and logical operations in accumulator
(b) Accumulator
 General purpose register
 Stores one of the operand before any arithmetic and logical
operations and result of operation is again stored back in
Accumulator
 Store 8 bit data during I/O transfer
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(2) ALU & Logical Group…………………..cont…………………
(c) Temporary Register
 8 bit register
 During the arithmetic and logical operations one operand is available in A
and other operand is always transferred to temporary register
For Eg.: ADD B – content of B is transferred into temporary register
before actual addition
(d) Flag Register
 Five flag is connected to ALU
 After the ALU operation is performed the status of result will be stored in
five flags.
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(3) Instruction decoder and machine cycle encoder, Timing and
control circuitry
(a) Instruction decoder and machine cycle encoder :
 Decodes the op-code stored in the Instruction Register (IR) and
establishes the sequence of events to follow.
 Encodes it and transfer to the timing & control unit to perform the
execution of the instruction.
(b) Timing and control circuitry
 works as the brain of the CPU
 For proper sequence and synchronization of all the operations of MP,
this unit generates all the timing and control signals necessary for
communication between microprocessor and peripherals.

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(4) Interrupt Control group
 Interrupt:- Occurrence of an external disturbance
 After servicing the interrupt, 8085 resumes its normal working sequence
 Transfer the control to special routines
 Five interrupts: - TRAP, RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5, INTR
 In response to INTR, it generates INTA signal
(5) Serial I/O control Group
 Data transfer red on D0- D7 lines is parallel data
 But under some condition it is used serial data transfer
 Serial data is entered through SID(serial input data) input (received)
 Serial data is outputted on SOD(serial output data) input (send)

8085 Pin Diagram
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Pin Configuration Functional Pin diagram

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 The 8085 is an 8-bit general purpose microprocessor that can
address 64K Byte of memory.
 It has 40 pins and uses +5V for power. It can run at a maximum
frequency of 3 MHz.
 The pins on the chip can be grouped into 6 groups:
 Address Bus and Data Bus.
 Status Signals.
 Control signal
 Interrupt signal
 Power supply and Clock signal
 Reset Signal
 DMA request Signal
 Serial I/O signal
 Externally Initiated Signals.
8085 Pin Description

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 Address Bus (Pin 21-28)
 16 bit address lines A0 to A15
 The address bus has 8 signal lines A8 – A15 which are unidirectional.
 The other 8 address lines A0 to A7 are multiplexed (time shared) with the 8
data bits.
 Data Bus (Pin 19-12)
 To save the number of pins lower order address pin are multiplexed with 8 bit
data bus (bidirectional)
 So, the bits AD0 – AD7 are bi-directional and serve as A0 – A7 and D0 – D7 at
the same time.
 During the execution of the instruction, these lines carry the address bits
during the early part (T1 state), then during the late parts(T2 state) of the
execution, they carry the 8 data bits.
The Address and Data Busses

Status Signals
Status Pins – ALE, S1, S0
1. ALE(Address Latch Enable): (Pin 30)
 Used to demultiplexed the address and data bus
 +ive going pulse generated when a new operation is started by uP.
 ALE = 1 when the AD0 – AD7 lines have an address
 ALE = 0 When it is low it indicates that the contents are data.
 This signal can be used to enable a latch to save the address bits from the AD lines.
2. S1 and S0 (Status Signal): (Pin 33 and 29)
 Status signals to specify the kind of operation being performed .
 Usually un-used in small systems. S1 S0 Operation
0 0 HALT
0 1 WRITE
1 0 READ
1 1 FETCH

Control Signals
Control Pins – RD, WR, IO/M(active low)
1. RD: Read(Active low) (Pin 32)
 Read Memory or I/O device
 Indicated that data is to be read either from memory or I/P device and data bus is ready
for accepting data from the memory or I/O device.
2. WR: Write(Active low) (Pin 31)
 Write Memory or I/O device
 Indicated that data on the data bus are to be written into selected memory or I/P device.
3. IO/M: (Input Output/Memory-Active low) (Pin 34)
 Signal specifies that the read/write operation relates to whether memory or I/O device.
 When (IO/M=1) the address on the address bus is for I/O device
 When (IO/M=0) the address on the address bus is for memory
IO/M(active low) RD WR Control Signal Operation
0 0 1 MEMR M/M Read
0 1 0 MEMW M/M write
1 0 1 IOR I/O Read
1 1 0 IOW I/O Write

Control and status Signals
When S0, S1 is combined with IO/M(active low), we get status of
machine cycle
Z= Tristate, X = don’t care condition
IO/M S1 S0 OPERATION
Control
Signal
0 1 1 Opcode fetch RD = 0
0 1 0 Memory read RD= 0
0 0 1 Memory write WR = 0
1 1 0 I/O read RD = 0
1 0 1 I/O write WR = 0
1 1 0
Interrupt
Acknowledge
INTA = 0
Z 0 0 Halt
RD, WR = Z
and INTA =1
Z x x Hold
Z x x Reset

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 They are the signals initiated by an external device to request the
microprocessor to do a particular task or work.
 There are five hardware interrupts called, (Pin 6-11)
 On receipt of an interrupt, the microprocessor acknowledges the interrupt
by the active low INTA (Interrupt Acknowledge) signal.
Interrupts

Power supply and Clock Signal
Vcc (Pin 40) : single +5 volt power supply
Vss (Pin 20) : Ground
There are 3 important pins in this group.
 X0 and X1 :((Pin 1-2)
 Crystal or R/C network or LC network connections to set the
frequency of internal clock generator.
 The frequency is internally divided by two.
 Since the basic operating timing frequency is 3 MHz, a 6 MHz
crystal is connected to the X0 and X1 pins.
 CLK (output): (Pin 37)
 Clock Output is used as the system clock for peripheral and devices
interfaced with the microprocessor.

Reset Signals
 Reset In (input, active low) (Pin 36)
 This signal is used to reset the microprocessor.
 The program counter inside the microprocessor is set to
zero(0000H)
 The buses are tri-stated.
 Reset Out (Output, Active High) (Pin 3)
 It indicates MP is being reset.
 Used to reset all the connected devices when the
microprocessor is reset.

DMA Request Signals
 DMA:
 When 2 or more devices are connected to a common bus, to prevent the devices from
interfering with each other, the tristate gates are used to disconnect all devices except the one
that is communicating at a given instant .
 The CPU controls the data transfer operation between memory and I/O device.
 DMA operation is used for large volume data transfer between memory and an I/O device
directly.
 The CPU is disabled by tri-stating its buses and the transfer is effected directly by external
control circuits.
 HOLD (Pin 38)
 This signal indicates that another device is requesting the use of address and data bus.
 So it relinquish the use of buses as soon as the current machine cycle is completed.
 MP regains the bus after the removal of a HOLD signal
 HLDA (Pin 39)
 On receipt of HOLD signal, the MP acknowledges the request by sending
out HLDA signal and leaves out the control of the buses.
 After the HLDA signal the DMA controller starts the direct transfer of data.
 After the removal of HOLD request HLDA goes low.

Serial I/O Signals
These pins are used for serial data communication
 SID (input) Serial input data (Pin 4)
 It is a data line for serial input
 Used to accept serial data bit by bit from external device
 The data on this line is loaded into accumulator bit 7 whenever a
RIM instruction is executed.
 SOD (output) Serial output data (Pin 5)
 It is a data line for serial output
 Used to transmit serial data bit by bit to the external device
 The 7th bit of the accumulator is outputted on SOD line when SIM
instruction is executed.

Externally Initiated signal
 Ready (input) (Pin 35)
 Memory and I/O devices will have slower response compared to
microprocessors.
 Before completing the present job such a slow peripheral may not be
able to handle further data or control signal from CPU.
 The processor sets the READY signal after completing the present job
to access the data.
 It synchronize slower peripheral to the processor.
 The microprocessor enters into WAIT state while the READY pin is
disabled.

8085 Programming register and
programming model
 The register which are programmable and available for the use are six general
purpose register, A, F, PC, SP.
8085 programming model

Fetching & Exécution Cycles
 Fetching Cycles
The fetch cycle takes the instruction required from memory,
stores it in the instruction register, and
 Moves the program counter on one so that it points to the next
instruction.
 Execute cycle
 The actual actions which occur during the execute cycle of an
instruction.
 Depend on both the instruction itself and the addressing mode
specified to be used to access the data that may be required.
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Fetching an instruction
Step 1: Instruction pointer (program counter) hold the
address of the next instruction to be fetch.
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Step 2
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Fetching an instruction….Cont….

Step 3
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Step 4
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Step 5
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Step 6
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Data flow from memory to MPU
Steps and data flow, when the
instruction code 01001111 (4FH
– MOV C, A) stored in the
location 2005H, is being fetch.
Fetch Cycle: To fetch the byte,
the MPU needs to identify the
memory location 2005 and
enable the data flow from
memory
Step 1: MPU places the 16 bit memory address from PC on the address bus
Step 2: Control unit send the signal RD to enable memory chip
Step 3: The byte from the memory location is placed on the data bus.
Step 4: The byte is placed on the instruction decoder of the MPU and task is carried
out according to the instruction.

Timing: Transfer of byte from memory to MPU
How a data byte is transfer from
memory to the MPU.
It shows the five different group
of signals with clock
Step 1: At T1 higher order memory
address 20H is placed on the A15 – A8
and the lower order memory address
05H is placed on the bus AD7-AD0,
and ALE signal high. IO/M goes
low(memory related signal).
Step 2: During T2 RD signal is sent
out. RD is active during two clock
periods.
Step 3 : During T3, Memory is enabled then instruction byte 4FH is placed on the data
bus and transferred to MPU. When RD goes high it causes the bus to go into high
impedance state.
Step 4: During T4, the machine code or byte is decoded by the instruction decoder and
content of A is copied into register.

Buses Structure
 Various I/O devices and memories are connected to CPU by a group of lines
called as bus.
8085 Bus structure

De-multiplexing AD7-AD0
 AD7– AD0 lines are serving a dual purpose and that they need to be
demultiplexed to get all the information.
 The high order bits(20 H) of the address remain on the bus for three clock
periods. However, the low order bits (05H) remain for only one clock
period and they would be lost if they are not saved externally. The low order
bits of the address disappear when they are needed most.
 To make sure we have the entire address for the full three clock cycles, we
will use an external latch to save the value of AD7– AD0 when it is carrying
the address bits. We use the ALE signal to enable this latch. ALE signal is
connected to the enable (G) pin of the latch.

De-multiplexing AD7-AD0
 Given that ALE operates
as a pulse during T1, ALE is
high the latch is
transparent; output
changes according to input.
So during T1 output of
latch is 05H.
 When ALE goes low, the
data byte 05H is latched
until the next ALE, the
output of the latch
represents the low order
address bus A7- A0 after
latching operation.

Generating Control Signals
Fig: Generate Read/write control signal
for memory and I/O
Signals are used both for memory and I/O
related operations. So four different
control signals are generated by combining
the signals RD, WR and IO/M.
MEMR = Reading from memory
MEMW = writing into memory
IOR = Reading from input port
IOW = writing to an output port
Fig: 8085 De-multiplexed address and data
bus with control signal

Instruction Decoding & Execution
Step 1: Places the content of data bus (4FH) in the IR and decode the instruction.
Step 2: Transfer the content of the accumulator(82H) to the temporary register in the
ALU.
Step 3: Transfer the content of temporary register to C register.
Assume A= 82 H
Instruction MOV
C,A(4FH) is fetched.
List of steps in decoding
& execution

Chapter 1 microprocessor introduction

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Chapter 1 microprocessor introduction