Qualitative codes and coding

Qualitative codes
and coding
“If it moves, code it”
(Richards and Morse, 2007: 146)

Heather Ford | Advanced Qualitative Analysis |
Oxford Internet Institute | Hilary Term 2014
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Friday, February 14, 2014

Goals for today
• Understand the functions of codes and

memos in the qualitative research process

• Understand different approaches to coding
and memo-ing and how they are
implemented in real research projects

• Get some experience coding and memo-ing
• Formulate next steps for your project

<codes>


What is a qualitative
code?


‘A code in qualitative inquiry is most often a
word or short phrase that symbolically
assigns a summative, salient, essencecapturing, and/or evocative attribute for a
portion of language-based or visual data’
(Saldaña, 2013)


Are codes the same as
categories?


‘(Q)ualitative codes are essence-capturing
and essential elements of the research story,
that, when clustered together according to
similarity and regularity (a pattern), they
actively facilitate the development of
categories and thus analysis of their
connections.’
(Saldaña, 2013: 8)Ñ


‘A word or a phrase does not “contain” its
meaning as a bucket “contains” water, but has
the meaning it does by being a choice made
about its signiﬁcance in a given context.’
(Blissa, Mark, and Ogborn, 1983 in Miles and Huberman, 1994


Steps
1. Decide which types of coding is most relevant
2. Start coding!
3. Create a start list of codes
4. Generate categories (pattern codes)
5. Test these categories against new data (start with
contrasting data early on!)
6. Write about categories/pattern codes in a memo to
explain their signiﬁcance


Coding is cyclical
• coding is not just

labeling, it is linking
(Saldaña, 2013: 8) - from
the data to the idea and
back to other data

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/research/guides/qualitative.htm?part=3


Different approaches to
coding

Hsiu-Fang Hsieh and Sarah E.
Shannon, 2005:

(A few of many)
coding concepts
1. descriptive coding: summarizes the primary topic of
the excerpt
2. process coding: a word or phrase that captures
action
3. in vivo coding: using the participants’ own language
4. pattern coding: coding for patterns in the data
5. simultaneous coding: applying multiple codes to the
same text


Descriptive vs In Vivo coding



? coding:



? coding:

? coding:

(Saldaña, 2013: 7)


(Saldaña, 2013: 7)


descriptive coding:

(Saldaña, 2013: 7)


descriptive coding:

in vivo coding:

(Saldaña, 2013: 7)

? coding

(Saldaña, 2013: 5)

Process coding,
simultaneous coding

(Saldaña, 2013: 5)

Pattern coding
•
•
•
•
•

similarity (things happen the same way)

•

causation (one appears to cause another)

difference (they happen in predictably different ways)
frequency (they happen often or seldom)
sequence (they happen in a certain order)
correspondence (they happen in relation to other activities
or events)

(Hatch, 2002: 155)


What gets coded?
Social life happens at four coordinates,“the
intersection of one or more actors
(participants) engaging in one or more activities
(behaviors) at a particular time in a specific
place”
Lofland, Snow, Anderson, & Lofland (2006) in Saldaña


Units of social organisation
1. cultural practices (daily routines, occupational tasks);
2. episodes (unanticipated or irregular activities such as
divorce, championship games, natural disasters);
3. encounters (a temporary interaction between two or more
individuals such as sales transactions, panhandling);
4. roles (student, mother, customer) & social types (bully, geek);
5. social & personal relationships (husband & wife, party-goers);
6. groups & cliques (gangs, congregations, families, jocks)
7. organizations (schools, fast-food restaurants, prisons);
8. settlements and habitats (villages, neighborhoods, etc.);
9. subcultures and lifestyles (the homeless, skinheads)

In combination with
1. cognitive aspects or meanings (e.g., ideologies, rules, selfconcepts, identities);
2. emotional aspects or feelings (e.g., sympathy in health
care, road rage,workplace satisfaction);
3. hierarchical aspects or inequalities (e.g., racial inequality,
battered women, high school cliques)

First Cycle coding:
Emotion Coding,Values Coding
Structures and processes: Process Coding, and Domain
and Taxonomic Coding,
Causes and consequences: Pattern Coding

Questions to ask
yourself as you code
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

What are people doing? What are they trying to accomplish?
How, exactly, do they do this? What speciﬁc means &/or strategies do they use?
How do members talk about, characterize, and understand what is going on?
What assumptions are they making?
What do I see going on here?
What did I learn from these notes?
Why did I include them?
(Auerbach and Silverstein, 2003: 44)
What surprised me? (to track your assumptions)
What intrigued me? (to track your positionality)
What disturbed me? (to track the tensions within your value, attitude and beliefs
(Sunstein and Chiseri-Strater, 2007: 106)


How many codes?
• it depends...
• pro line by line: Charmaz (2008) says it
reduces chance of bias

• Stern (2007) looks for the ‘cream on the
top’ of the data

• Friese (2012) recommends 120-300 codes

total; others like Litchtman (2010) suggests
20-100; Crewell (2013) starts with 5-6
provisional codes


Advice from Saldaña
• Be organized
• Exercise perseverance
• Learn to deal with ambiguity
• Exercise ﬂexibility
• Be creative
• Be ‘rigorously ethical’
• Develop an extensive vocabulary

</codes>


<memos>


When you get new data
through interviews, ﬁeld visits, participant
observation etc

• write up your observations in memos, using
contact sheets and/or interim case analysis
forms


Memos and memo-ing
• ‘(A memo is) the theorizing write-up of

ideas about codes and their relationships as
they strike the analyst while coding... it can
be a sentence, a paragraph or a few pages...
it exhausts the analyst’s momentary
ideation based on data with perhaps a little
conceptual elaboration’ (Glaser, 1978: 83)


What can memos do?
•
•
•

pulling together incidents that appear to have commonalities

•
•

proposals for a specific new pattern code

•

when the analyst does not have a clear concept in mind but is
struggling to clarify one

•

around a general theme or metaphor that pulls together
discrete observations

what is intensely puzzling or surprising about a case
alternative hypotheses in response to someone else’s memo
(or analysis)

integrating a set of marginal or reflective remarks already made
on field notes

Miles and Huberman, 1994: 73)

other types of
documents to help with
iterative analysis

Contact sheet
•
•

Should take less than an hour to fill out

•

Essential for revising your initial framework

Contains: date of contact, key concepts, linked to
specific places in field notes

(Miles and Huberman, 1994: 51)


Contact sheet
Questions:

•

What people, events, or situations were involved? (using numbers
or other identifiers to anonymize if necessary)

•
•

What were the main themes or issues in the contact?

•

What new hypotheses, speculations, or hunches about the field
situations were suggested by the contact?

•

Where should the field-worker place most energy during the next
contact, and what kinds of information should be sought?

Which research questions and which variables in the initial
framework did the contact bear on most centrally?

(Miles and Huberman, 1994: 51)

Interim case analysis forms
1. Main themes, impressions, summary statements
about what is going on in the site
2. Explanations, speculations, hypotheses about what is
going on in the site
3. Alternative explanations, minority reports,
disagreements about what is going on in the site
4. Next steps for data collection
5. Implications for revision, updating of coding scheme
Based on Miles and Huberman, 1994: 78

Research outline
Auerbach & Silverstein (2003, p.44)
recommend that you keep a copy of your
research concern, theoretical framework,
central research question, goals of the study,
and other major issues on one page in front
of you to keep you focused and allay your
anxieties because the page focuses your
coding decisions.


</memos>


Let’s start coding!
20 mins


Let’s write a memo!
10 mins


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