arXiv:1104.1106v2 [math.

DG] 7 Apr 2011

Lecture Notes in Lie Groups

Vladimir G. Ivancevic

Tijana T. Ivancevic

Abstract
These lecture notes in Lie Groups are designed for a 1semester third year
or graduate course in mathematics, physics, engineering, chemistry or biology.
This landmark theory of the 20th Century mathematics and physics gives a
rigorous foundation to modern dynamics, as well as field and gauge theories
in physics, engineering and biomechanics. We give both physical and medical
examples of Lie groups. The only necessary background for comprehensive
reading of these notes are advanced calculus and linear algebra.

Contents
1 Preliminaries: Sets, Maps
1.1 Sets . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Maps . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Commutative Diagrams

and Diagrams
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Groups

3
3
4
5
6

3 Manifolds
3.1 Definition of a Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Formal Definition of a Smooth Manifold . . . .
3.3 Smooth Maps Between Smooth Manifolds . . .
3.4 Tangent Bundle and Lagrangian Dynamics . .
3.5 Cotangent Bundle and Hamiltonian Dynamics .

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8
11
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13
14
17

Land Operations Division, Defence Science & Technology Organisation, P.O. Box 1500, Edinburgh SA 5111, Australia
(e-mail: Vladimir.Ivancevic@dsto.defence.gov.au)

Tesla Science Evolution Institute & QLIWW IP Pty Ltd., Adelaide, Australia
(e-mail:
tijana.ivancevic@alumni.adelaide.edu.au)

4 Lie
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9

Groups
Definition of a Lie Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lie Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
One-Parameter Subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exponential Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Adjoint Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Actions of Lie Groups on Smooth Manifolds . . . .
Basic Tables of Lie Groups and Their Lie Algebras
Representations of Lie groups . . . . . . . . . . . .
Root Systems and Dynkin Diagrams . . . . . . . .
4.9.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.3 Dynkin Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.4 Irreducible Root Systems . . . . . . . . . .
4.10 Simple and Semisimple Lie Groups and Algebras .

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5 Some Classical Examples of Lie Groups

5.1 Galilei Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 General Linear Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Rotational Lie Groups in Human/Humanoid Biomechanics
5.3.1 Uniaxial Group of Joint Rotations . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2 ThreeAxial Group of Joint Rotations . . . . . . . .
5.3.3 The Heavy Top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Euclidean Groups of Rigid Body Motion . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1 Special Euclidean Group SE(2) in the Plane . . . .
5.4.2 Special Euclidean Group SE(3) in the 3D Space . .
5.5 Basic Mechanical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.1 SE(2)Hovercraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.2 SO(3)Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.3 SE(3)Submarine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 NewtonEuler SE(3)Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.1 SO(3) : Euler Equations of Rigid Rotations . . . . .
5.6.2 SE(3) : Coupled NewtonEuler Equations . . . . . .
5.7 Symplectic Group in Hamiltonian Mechanics . . . . . . . .

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56

6 Medical Applications: Prediction of Injuries

6.1 General Theory of MusculoSkeletal Injury Mechanics . . . . .
6.2 Analytical Mechanics of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) . . . . .
6.2.1 The SE(3)jolt: the cause of TBI . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 SE(3)group of brains micromotions within the CSF

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6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5

Brains natural SE(3)dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Brains traumatic dynamics: the SE(3)jolt . . . . . . . . . 68
Brains dislocations and disclinations caused by the SE(3)jolt 69

Preliminaries: Sets, Maps and Diagrams

1.1

Sets

Given a map (or, a function) f : A B, the set A is called the domain of f , and
denoted Dom f . The set B is called the codomain of f , and denoted Cod f. The
codomain is not to be confused with the range of f (A), which is in general only a
subset of B (see [8, 9]).
A map f : X Y is called injective, or 11, or an injection, iff for every y in the
codomain Y there is at most one x in the domain X with f (x) = y. Put another way,
given x and x in X, if f (x) = f (x ), then it follows that x = x . A map f : X Y
is called surjective, or onto, or a surjection, iff for every y in the codomain Cod f
there is at least one x in the domain X with f (x) = y. Put another way, the range
f (X) is equal to the codomain Y . A map is bijective iff it is both injective and
surjective. Injective functions are called monomorphisms, and surjective functions
are called epimorphisms in the category of sets (see below). Bijective functions are
called isomorphisms.
A relation is any subset of a Cartesian product (see below). By definition, an
equivalence relation on a set X is a relation which is reflexive, symmetrical and
transitive, i.e., relation that satisfies the following three conditions:
1. Reflexivity: each element x X is equivalent to itself, i.e., xx;
2. Symmetry: for any two elements a, b X, ab implies ba; and
3. Transitivity: ab and bc implies ac.
Similarly, a relation defines a partial order on a set S if it has the following
properties:
1. Reflexivity: a a for all a S;
2. Antisymmetry: a b and b a implies a = b; and
3. Transitivity: a b and b c implies a c.
A partially ordered set (or poset) is a set taken together with a partial order on
it. Formally, a partially ordered set is defined as an ordered pair P = (X, ), where
X is called the ground set of P and is the partial order of P .
3

1.2

Maps

Let f and g be maps with domains A and B. Then the maps f + g, f g, f g, and
f /g are defined as follows (see [8, 9]):
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

domain = A B,

(f g)(x) = f (x) g(x)

(f g)(x) = f (x) g(x)
 
f
f (x)
(x) =
g
g(x)

domain = A B,

domain = A B,

domain = {x A B : g(x) 6= 0}.

Given two maps f and g, the composite map f g, called the composition of f
and g, is defined by
(f g)(x) = f (g(x)).
The (f g)machine is composed of the gmachine (first) and then the f machine,
x [[g]] g(x) [[f ]] f (g(x)).

For example, suppose that y = f (u) = u and u = g(x) = x2 + 1. Since y is a

function of u and u is a function of x, it follows that y is ultimately a function of x.
We calculate this by substitution
p
y = f (u) = f g = f (g(x)) = f (x2 + 1) = x2 + 1.
If f and g are both differentiable (or smooth, i.e., C ) maps and h = f g is the
composite map defined by h(x) = f (g(x)), then h is differentiable and h is given by
the product:
h (x) = f (g(x)) g (x).

In Leibniz notation, if y = f (u) and u = g(x) are both differentiable maps, then
dy du
dy
=
.
dx
du dx
The reason for the name chain rule becomes clear if we add another link to the chain.
Suppose that we have one more differentiable map x = h(t). Then, to calculate the
derivative of y with respect to t, we use the chain rule twice,
dy
dy du dx
=
.
dt
du dx dt


 (x,...) 
Given a 11 continuous (i.e., C 0 ) map F with a nonzero Jacobian  (u,...)
 that
maps a region S onto a region R, we have the following substitution formulas:
4

1. For a single integral,

Z

f (x) dx =

f (x(u))

x
du;
u

2. For a double integral,



ZZ
ZZ
 (x, y) 

 dudv;
f (x(u, v), y(u, v)) 
f (x, y) dA =

(u,
v)
S
R

3. For a triple integral,



ZZZ
ZZZ
 (x, y, z) 
 dudvdw;
f (x(u, v, w), y(u, v, w), z(u, v, w)) 
f (x, y, z) dV =
(u, v, w) 
S
R

4. Generalization to ntuple integrals is obvious.

1.3

Commutative Diagrams

Many properties of mathematical systems can be unified and simplified by a presentation with commutative diagrams of arrows. Each arrow f : X Y represents a
function (i.e., a map, transformation, operator); that is, a source (domain) set X, a
target (codomain) set Y , and a rule x 7 f (x) which assigns to each element x X
an element f (x) Y . A typical diagram of sets and functions is (see [8, 9]):
X

f
Y

g
h

X
or

f
f (X)

g
h

g(f (X))

This diagram is commutative iff h = g f , where g f is the usual composite function

g f : X Z, defined by x 7 g(f (x)).
Less formally, composing maps is like following directed paths from one object to
another (e.g., from set to set). In general, a diagram is commutative iff any two paths
along arrows that start at the same point and finish at the same point yield the same
homomorphism via compositions along successive arrows. Commutativity of the
whole diagram follows from commutativity of its triangular components. Study of
commutative diagrams is popularly called diagram chasing, and provides a powerful
tool for mathematical thought.
Many properties of mathematical constructions may be represented by universal
properties of diagrams. Consider the Cartesian product X Y of two sets, consisting
as usual of all ordered pairs hx, yi of elements x X and y Y . The projections
5

hx, yi 7 x, hx, yi 7 y of the product on its axes X and Y are functions p :

X Y X, q : X Y Y . Any function h : W X Y from a third set W
is uniquely determined by its composites p h and q h. Conversely, given W and
two functions f and g as in the diagram below, there is a unique function h which
makes the following diagram commute:
W

Y
X Y
q

X p

This property describes the Cartesian product X Y uniquely; the same diagram,
read in the category of topological spaces or of groups, describes uniquely the Cartesian product of spaces or of the direct product of groups.

Groups

A group is a pointed set (G, e) with a multiplication : G G G and an inverse

: G G such that the following diagrams commute (see [10, 8, 9]):
1.

(e, 1)

GG

(1, e)

G
(e is a twosided identity)
2.
GGG
1

GG

GG

(associativity)

3.

(, 1)

GG

(1, )

G
(inverse).
Here e : G G is the constant map e(g) = e for all g G. (e, 1) means the map
such that (e, 1)(g) = (e, g), etc. A group G is called commutative or Abelian group
if in addition the following diagram commutes
T

GG

GG

G
where T : G G G G is the switch map T (g1 , g2 ) = (g2 , g1 ), for all (g1 , g2 )
G G.
A group G acts (on the left) on a set A if there is a function : G A A
such that the following diagrams commute:
1.
A

(e, 1)

GA

A
2.
GGA
1

GA

GA

where (e, 1)(x) = (e, x) for all x A. The orbits of the action are the sets
Gx = {gx : g G} for all x A.

Given two groups (G, ) and (H, ), a group homomorphism from (G, ) to (H, )
is a function h : G H such that for all x and y in G it holds that
h(x y) = h(x) h(y).
From this property, one can deduce that h maps the identity element eG of G to
the identity element eH of H, and it also maps inverses to inverses in the sense that
h(x1 ) = h(x)1 . Hence one can say that h is compatible with the group structure.
The kernel Ker h of a group homomorphism h : G H consists of all those
elements of G which are sent by h to the identity element eH of H, i.e.,
Ker h = {x G : h(x) = eH }.
The image Im h of a group homomorphism h : G H consists of all elements
of G which are sent by h to H, i.e.,
Im h = {h(x) : x G}.
The kernel is a normal subgroup of G and the image is a subgroup of H. The
homomorphism h is injective (and called a group monomorphism) iff Ker h = eG ,
i.e., iff the kernel of h consists of the identity element of G only.

Manifolds

A manifold is an abstract mathematical space, which locally (i.e., in a closeup

view) resembles the spaces described by Euclidean geometry, but which globally
(i.e., when viewed as a whole) may have a more complicated structure (see [11]).
For example, the surface of Earth is a manifold; locally it seems to be flat, but viewed
as a whole from the outer space (globally) it is actually round. A manifold can be
constructed by gluing separate Euclidean spaces together; for example, a world
map can be made by gluing many maps of local regions together, and accounting
for the resulting distortions.
As main puremathematical references for manifolds we recommend popular
graduate textbooks by two exBourbaki members, Serge Lang [13, 12] and Jean
Dieudonne [14, 15]. Besides, the reader might wish to consult some other classics,
including [11, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 3]. Finally, as firstorder applications, we recommend three popular textbooks in mechanics, [2, 1, 4], as well as our own geometrical
monographs [8, 9].
Another example of a manifold is a circle S 1 . A small piece of a circle appears to
be like a slightlybent part of a straight line segment, but overall the circle and the

segment are different 1D manifolds. A circle can be formed by bending a straight

line segment and gluing the ends together.1
The surfaces of a sphere 2 and a torus 3 are examples of 2D manifolds. Manifolds
1

Locally, the circle looks like a line. It is 1D, that is, only one coordinate is needed to say
where a point is on the circle locally. Consider, for instance, the top part of the circle, where the
ycoordinate is positive. Any point in this part can be described by the xcoordinate. So, there is a
continuous bijection top (a mapping which is 11 both ways), which maps the top part of the circle
to the open interval (1, 1), by simply projecting onto the first coordinate: top (x, y) = x. Such
a function is called a chart. Similarly, there are charts for the bottom, left , and right parts of the
circle. Together, these parts cover the whole circle and the four charts form an atlas (see the next
subsection) for the circle. The top and right charts overlap: their intersection lies in the quarter
of the circle where both the x and the ycoordinates are positive. The two charts top and
right map this part bijectively to the interval (0, 1). Thus a function T from (0, 1) to itself can be
constructed, which first inverts the top chart to reach the circle and then follows the right chart
back to the interval:
 p
 p


T (a) = right 1
1 a2 = 1 a2 .
top (a) = right a,

Such a function is called a transition map. The top, bottom, left, and right charts show that the
circle is a manifold, but they do not form the only possible atlas. Charts need not be geometric
projections, and the number of charts is a matter of choice. T and the other transition functions
are differentiable on the interval (0, 1). Therefore, with this atlas the circle is a differentiable, or
smooth manifold.
2
The surface of the sphere S 2 can be treated in almost the same way as the circle S 1 . It can be
viewed as a subset of R3 , defined by: S = {(x, y, z) R3 |x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1}. The sphere is 2D, so
each chart will map part of the sphere to an open subset of R2 . Consider the northern hemisphere,
which is the part with positive z coordinate. The function defined by (x, y, z) = (x, y), maps
the northern hemisphere to the open unit disc by projecting it on the (x, y)plane. A similar chart
exists for the southern hemisphere. Together with two charts projecting on the (x, z)plane and two
charts projecting on the (y, z)plane, an atlas of six charts is obtained which covers the entire sphere.
This can be easily generalized to an nD sphere S n = {(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) Rn |x21 + x22 + ... + x2n = 1}.
An nsphere S n can be also constructed by gluing together two copies of Rn . The transition
map between them is defined as Rn \ {0} Rn \ {0} : x 7 x/kxk2 . This function is its own inverse,
so it can be used in both directions. As the transition map is a (C )smooth function, this atlas
defines a smooth manifold.
3
A torus (pl. tori), denoted by T 2 , is a doughnutshaped surface of revolution generated by
revolving a circle about an axis coplanar with the circle. The sphere S 2 is a special case of the
torus obtained when the axis of rotation is a diameter of the circle. If the axis of rotation does not
intersect the circle, the torus has a hole in the middle and resembles a ring doughnut, a hula hoop
or an inflated tire. The other case, when the axis of rotation is a chord of the circle, produces a
sort of squashed sphere resembling a round cushion.
A torus can be defined parametrically by:
x(u, v) = (R + r cos v) cos u,

y(u, v) = (R + r cos v) sin u,

z(u, v) = r sin v,

where u, v [0, 2], R is the distance from the center of the tube to the center of the torus, and r
is the radius of the tube. According to a broader definition, the generator of a torus need not be a
circle but could also be an ellipse or any other conic section.
Topologically, a torus is a closed surface defined as product of two circles: T 2 = S 1 S 1 . The

are important objects in mathematics, physics and control theory, because they
allow more complicated structures to be expressed and understood in terms of the
wellunderstood properties of simpler Euclidean spaces (see [9]).
The Cartesian product of manifolds is also a manifold (note that not every manifold can be written as a product). The dimension of the product manifold is the
sum of the dimensions of its factors. Its topology is the product topology, and a
Cartesian product of charts is a chart for the product manifold. Thus, an atlas
for the product manifold can be constructed using atlases for its factors. If these
atlases define a differential structure on the factors, the corresponding atlas defines
a differential structure on the product manifold. The same is true for any other
structure defined on the factors. If one of the factors has a boundary, the product
manifold also has a boundary. Cartesian products may be used to construct tori
and cylinders, for example, as S 1 S 1 and S 1 [0, 1], respectively.
Manifolds need not be connected (all in one piece): a pair of separate circles
is also a topological manifold(see below). Manifolds need not be closed: a line
segment without its ends is a manifold. Manifolds need not be finite: a parabola is
a topological manifold.
Manifolds4 can be viewed using either extrinsic or intrinsic view. In the extrinsic
view, usually used in geometry and topology of surfaces, an nD manifold M is seen
as embedded in an (n + 1)D Euclidean space Rn+1 . Such a manifold is called a
codimension 1 space. With this view it is easy to use intuition from Euclidean
spaces to define additional structure. For example, in a Euclidean space it is always
clear whether a vector at some point is tangential or normal to some surface through
that point. On the other hand, the intrinsic view of an nD manifold M is an
abstract way of considering M as a topological space by itself, without any need
surface described above, given the relative topology from R3 , is homeomorphic to a topological torus
as long as it does not intersect its own axis.
One can easily generalize the torus to arbitrary dimensions. An ntorus T n is defined as a
product of n circles: T n = S 1 S 1 S 1 . Equivalently, the ntorus is obtained from the
ncube (the Rn generalization of the ordinary cube in R3 ) by gluing the opposite faces together.
An ntorus T n is an example of an nD compact manifold. It is also an important example of a
Lie group (see below).
4

Additional structures are often defined on manifolds. Examples of manifolds with additional
structure include:
differentiable (or, smooth manifolds, on which one can do calculus;
Riemannian manifolds, on which distances and angles can be defined; they serve as the
configuration spaces in mechanics;
symplectic manifolds, which serve as the phase spaces in mechanics and physics;
4D pseudoRiemannian manifolds which model spacetime in general relativity.

10

for surrounding (n + 1)D Euclidean space. This view is more flexible and thus it
is usually used in highdimensional mechanics and physics (where manifolds used
represent configuration and phase spaces of dynamical systems), can make it harder
to imagine what a tangent vector might be.

3.1

Definition of a Manifold

Consider a set M (see Figure 1) which is a candidate for a manifold. Any point
x M has its Euclidean chart, given by a 11 and onto map i : M Rn , with its
Euclidean image Vi = i (Ui ). More precisely, a chart i is defined by (see [8, 9])
i : M Ui x 7 i (x) Vi Rn ,
where Ui M and Vi Rn are open sets.

Figure 1: Geometric picture of the manifold concept.

Clearly, any point x M can have several different charts (see Figure 1). Consider a case of two charts, i , j : M Rn , having in their images two open sets,
Vij = i (Ui Uj ) and Vji = j (Ui Uj ). Then we have transition functions ij
between them,
ij = j 1
i : Vij Vji ,

locally given by

ij (x) = j (1
i (x)).

If transition functions ij exist, then we say that two charts, i and j are compatible. Transition functions represent a general (nonlinear) transformations of coordinates, which are the core of classical tensor calculus.

11

A set of compatible charts i : M Rn , such that each point x M has its

Euclidean image in at least one chart, is called an atlas. Two atlases are equivalent
iff all their charts are compatible (i.e., transition functions exist between them), so
their union is also an atlas. A manifold structure is a class of equivalent atlases.
Finally, as charts i : M Rn were supposed to be 1-1 and onto maps, they
can be either homeomorphisms, in which case we have a topological (C 0 ) manifold,
or diffeomorphisms, in which case we have a smooth (C k ) manifold.

3.2

Formal Definition of a Smooth Manifold

Given a chart (U, ), we call the set U a coordinate domain, or a coordinate neighborhood of each of its points. If in addition (U ) is an open ball in Rn , then U
is called a coordinate ball. The map is called a (local) coordinate map, and the
component functions (x1 , ..., xn ) of , defined by (m) = (x1 (m), ..., xn (m)), are
called local coordinates on U [8, 9].
Two charts (U1 , 1 ) and (U2 , 2 ) such that U1 U2 6= are called compatible
if 1 (U1 U2 ) and 2 (U2 U1 ) are open subsets of Rn . A family (U , )A of
compatible charts on M such that the U form a covering of M is called an atlas.
The maps = 1
: (U ) (U ) are called the transition maps,
for the atlas (U , )A , where U = U U , so that we have a commutative
triangle:
U M

(U )

(U )

An atlas (U , )A for a manifold M is said to be a C k atlas, if all transition maps : (U ) (U ) are of class C k . Two C k atlases are called
C k equivalent, if their union is again a C k atlas for M . An equivalence class of
C k atlases is called a C k structure on M . In other words, a smooth structure on
M is a maximal smooth atlas on M , i.e., such an atlas that is not contained in any
strictly larger smooth atlas. By a C k manifold M , we mean a topological manifold
together with a C k structure and a chart on M will be a chart belonging to some
atlas of the C k structure. Smooth manifold means C manifold, and the word
smooth is used synonymously with C .
Sometimes the terms local coordinate system or parametrization are used
instead of charts. That M is not defined with any particular atlas, but with an
equivalence class of atlases, is a mathematical formulation of the general covariance
principle. Every suitable coordinate system is equally good. A Euclidean chart
12

may well suffice for an open subset of Rn , but this coordinate system is not to be
preferred to the others, which may require many charts (as with polar coordinates),
but are more convenient in other respects.
For example, the atlas of an nsphere S n has two charts. If N = (1, 0, ..., 0)
and S = (1, ..., 0, 0) are the north and south poles of S n respectively, then the two
charts are given by the stereographic projections from N and S:
1 : S n \{N } Rn , 1 (x1 , ..., xn+1 ) = (x2 /(1 x1 ), . . . , xn+1 /(1 x1 )), and

2 : S n \{S} Rn , 2 (x1 , ..., xn+1 ) = (x2 /(1 + x1 ), . . . , xn+1 /(1 + x1 )),

n
n
while the overlap map 2 1
1 : R \{0} R \{0} is given by the diffeomorphism
1
2
n
(2 1 )(z) = z/||z|| , for z in R \{0}, from Rn \{0} to itself.
Various additional structures can be imposed on Rn , and the corresponding manifold M will inherit them through its covering by charts. For example, if a covering
by charts takes their values in a Banach space E, then E is called the model space
and M is referred to as a C k Banach manifold modelled on E. Similarly, if a covering by charts takes their values in a Hilbert space H, then H is called the model
space and M is referred to as a C k Hilbert manifold modelled on H. If not otherwise specified, we will consider M to be an Euclidean manifold, with its covering by
charts taking their values in Rn .
For a Hausdorff C k manifold the following properties are equivalent: (i) it is
paracompact; (ii) it is metrizable; (iii) it admits a Riemannian metric;5 (iv) each
connected component is separable.

3.3

Smooth Maps Between Smooth Manifolds

A map : M N between two manifolds M and N , with M m 7 (m) N , is

called a smooth map, or C k map, if we have the following charting [8, 9]:
5

Recall the corresponding properties of a Euclidean metric d. For any three points x, y, z Rn ,
the following axioms are valid:
M1

d(x, y) > 0, for x 6= y;

and

M2

d(x, y) = d(y, x);

M3 : d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y).

13

d(x, y) = 0, for x = y;

(U )

(m)

Rm

(m)

(V )

((m))

Rn

This means that for each m M and each chart (V, ) on N with (m) V there
is a chart (U, ) on M with m U, (U ) V , and = 1 is C k , that is,
the following diagram commutes:
M U

V N

(U )

(V )

Let M and N be smooth manifolds and let : M N be a smooth map. The

map is called a covering, or equivalently, M is said to cover N , if is surjective
and each point n N admits an open neighborhood V such that 1 (V ) is a union
of disjoint open sets, each diffeomorphic via to V .
A C k map : M N is called a C k diffeomorphism if is a bijection,
1 : N M exists and is also C k . Two manifolds are called diffeomorphic if there
exists a diffeomorphism between them. All smooth manifolds and smooth maps
between them form the category M.

3.4

Tangent Bundle and Lagrangian Dynamics

The tangent bundle of a smooth nmanifold is the place where tangent vectors live,
and is itself a smooth 2nmanifold. Vectorfields are cross-sections of the tangent
bundle. The Lagrangian is a natural energy function on the tangent bundle (see
[8, 9]).
14

In mechanics, to each nD configuration manifold M there is associated its 2nD

velocity phasespace manifold, denoted by T M and called the tangent bundle of
M (see Figure 2). The original smooth manifold M is called the base of T M .
There is an onto map : T M M , called the projection. Above each point
x M there is a tangent space Tx M = 1 (x) to M at x, which is called a fibre.
The fibreGTx M T M is the subset of T M , such that the total tangent bundle,
TM =
Tx M , is a disjoint union of tangent spaces Tx M to M for all points
mM

x M . From dynamical perspective, the most important quantity in the tangent

bundle concept is the smooth map v : M T M , which is an inverse to the projection
, i.e, v = IdM , (v(x)) = x. It is called the velocity vectorfield. Its graph
(x, v(x)) represents the crosssection of the tangent bundle T M . This explains
the dynamical term velocity phasespace, given to the tangent bundle T M of the
manifold M .

Figure 2: A sketch of a tangent bundle T M of a smooth manifold M .

If [a, b] is a closed interval, a C 0 map : [a, b] M is said to be differentiable
at the endpoint a if there is a chart (U, ) at (a) such that the following limit exists
and is finite:
d
( )(t) ( )(a)
( )(a) ( ) (a) = lim
.
(1)
ta
dt
ta
Generalizing (1), we get the notion of the curve on a manifold. For a smooth
manifold M and a point m M a curve at m is a C 0 map : I M from an
interval I R into M with 0 I and (0) = m.
Two curves 1 and 2 passing though a point m U are tangent at m with
respect to the chart (U, ) if ( 1 ) (0) = ( 2 ) (0). Thus, two curves are tangent
if they have identical tangent vectors (same direction and speed) in a local chart on
a manifold.
For a smooth manifold M and a point m M, the tangent space Tm M to M at
m is the set of equivalence classes of curves at m:
Tm M = {[]m : is a curve at a point m M }.
15

A C k map : M m 7 (m) N between two manifolds M and N induces

a linear map Tm : Tm M T(m) N for each point m M , called a tangent map,
if we have:
Tm (M ) T M
T (N ) T(m) (N )
T ()

i.e., the following diagram commutes:

Tm M

Tm

(m)

T(m) N

M m

(m) N

with the natural projection M : T M M, given by M (Tm M ) = m, that takes a

tangent vector v to the point m M at which the vector v is attached i.e., v Tm M .
For an nD smooth manifold M , its nD tangent bundle T M
G is the disjoint union
of all its tangent spaces Tm M at all points m M , T M =
Tm M .
mM

To define the smooth structure on T M , we need to specify how to construct

local coordinates on T M . To do this, let (x1 (m), ..., xn (m)) be local coordinates of a
point m on M and let (v 1 (m), ..., v n (m)) be components of a tangent vector in this
coordinate system. Then the 2n numbers (x1 (m), ..., xn (m), v 1 (m), ..., v n (m)) give
a local coordinate
G system on T M .
TM =
Tm M defines a family of vector spaces parameterized by M . The
mM

inverse image 1
M (m) of a point m M under the natural projection M is the
tangent space Tm M . This space is called the fibre of the tangent bundle over the
point m M .
16

A C k map : M N between two manifolds M and N induces a linear

tangent map T : T M T N between their tangent bundles, i.e., the following
diagram commutes:
T
TN
TM
M

All tangent bundles and their tangent maps form the category T B. The category
T B is the natural framework for Lagrangian dynamics.
Now, we can formulate the global version of the chain rule. If : M N and
: N P are two smooth maps, then we have T ( ) = T T . In other
words, we have a functor T : M T B from the category M of smooth manifolds
to the category T B of their tangent bundles:

3.5

TM

( )

TN

T ( )

TP

Cotangent Bundle and Hamiltonian Dynamics

The cotangent bundle of a smooth nmanifold is the place is where 1forms live, and
is itself a smooth 2nmanifold. Covectorfields (1forms) are cross-sections of the
cotangent bundle. The Hamiltonian is a natural energy function on the cotangent
bundle (see [8, 9]).
A dual notion to the tangent space Tm M to a smooth manifold M at a point m
M at the same point m. Similarly to the tangent bundle,
is its cotangent space Tm
for a smooth manifold M of dimension n, its cotangent bundle T M is the
G disjoint
M at all points m M , i.e., T M =
M.
union of all its cotangent spaces Tm
Tm
mM

Therefore, the cotangent bundle of an nmanifold M is the vector bundle T M =

(T M ) , the (real) dual of the tangent bundle T M .
If M is an nmanifold, then T M is a 2nmanifold. To define the smooth
structure on T M , we need to specify how to construct local coordinates on T M .
To do this, let (x1 (m), ..., xn (m)) be local coordinates of a point m on M and let
(p1 (m), ..., pn (m)) be components of a covector in this coordinate system. Then the
2n numbers (x1 (m), ..., xn (m), p1 (m), ..., pn (m)) give a local coordinate system on
T M . This is the basic idea one uses to prove that indeed T M is a 2nmanifold.
17

T M =

M defines a family of vector spaces parameterized by M , with

Tm

mM

M ) = m, that takes a
the conatural projection, M : T M M, given by M (Tm
M.
covector p to the point m M at which the covector p is attached i.e., p Tm
1
The inverse image M (m) of a point m M under the conatural projection M is
M . This space is called the fibre of the cotangent bundle
the cotangent space Tm
over the point m M .
In a similar way, a C k map : M N between two manifolds M and N induces
a linear cotangent map T : T M T N between their cotangent bundles, i.e.,
the following diagram commutes:

T M

T N

All cotangent bundles and their cotangent maps form the category T B. The
category T B is the natural stage for Hamiltonian dynamics.
Now, we can formulate the dual version of the global chain rule. If : M N
and : N P are two smooth maps, then we have T ( ) = T T . In
other words, we have a cofunctor T : M T B from the category M of smooth
manifolds to the category T B of their cotangent bundles:
T M

( )

T
T N

T ( )

T P

Lie Groups

In this section we present the basics of classical theory of Lie groups and their Lie
algebras, as developed mainly by Sophus Lie, Elie Cartan, Felix Klein, Wilhelm
Killing and Hermann Weyl. For more comprehensive treatment see e.g., [21, 22, 23,
24, 25].
In the middle of the 19th Century S. Lie made a far reaching discovery that
techniques designed to solve particular unrelated types of ODEs, such as separable,
homogeneous and exact equations, were in fact all special cases of a general form of
integration procedure based on the invariance of the differential equation under a
18

continuous group of symmetries. Roughly speaking a symmetry group of a system

of differential equations is a group that transforms solutions of the system to other
solutions. Once the symmetry group has been identified a number of techniques
to solve and classify these differential equations becomes possible. In the classical
framework of Lie, these groups were local groups and arose locally as groups of
transformations on some Euclidean space. The passage from the local Lie group to
the present day definition using manifolds was accomplished by E. Cartan at the
end of the 19th Century, whose work is a striking synthesis of Lie theory, classical
geometry, differential geometry and topology.
These continuous groups, which originally appeared as symmetry groups of differential equations, have over the years had a profound impact on diverse areas such
as algebraic topology, differential geometry, numerical analysis, control theory, classical mechanics, quantum mechanics etc. They are now universally known as Lie
groups.
A Lie group is smooth manifold which also carries a group structure whose
product and inversion operations are smooth as maps of manifolds. These objects
arise naturally in describing physical symmetries.6
6

Here are a few examples of Lie groups and their relations to other areas of mathematics and
physics:
1. Euclidean space Rn is an Abelian Lie group (with ordinary vector addition as the group
operation).
2. The group GLn (R) of invertible matrices (under matrix multiplication) is a Lie group of
dimension n2 . It has a subgroup SLn (R) of matrices of determinant 1 which is also a Lie
group.
3. The group On (R) generated by all rotations and reflections of an nD vector space is a Lie
group called the orthogonal group. It has a subgroup of elements of determinant 1, called
the special orthogonal group SO(n), which is the group of rotations in Rn .
4. Spin groups are double covers of the special orthogonal groups (used e.g., for studying
fermions in quantum field theory).
5. The group Sp2n (R) of all matrices preserving a symplectic form is a Lie group called the
symplectic group.
6. The Lorentz group and the Poincare group of isometries of spacetime are Lie groups of
dimensions 6 and 10 that are used in special relativity.
7. The Heisenberg group is a Lie group of dimension 3, used in quantum mechanics.
8. The unitary group U (n) is a compact group of dimension n2 consisting of unitary matrices.
It has a subgroup of elements of determinant 1, called the special unitary group SU (n).
9. The group U (1) SU (2) SU (3) is a Lie group of dimension 1 + 3 + 8 = 12 that is the
gauge group of the Standard Model of elementary particles, whose dimension corresponds to:
1 photon + 3 vector bosons + 8 gluons.

19

A Lie group is a group whose elements can be continuously parametrized by

real numbers, such as the rotation group SO(3), which can be parametrized by the
Euler angles. More formally, a Lie group is an analytic real or complex manifold
that is also a group, such that the group operations multiplication and inversion
are analytic maps. Lie groups are important in mathematical analysis, physics and
geometry because they serve to describe the symmetry of analytical structures. They
were introduced by Sophus Lie in 1870 in order to study symmetries of differential
equations.
While the Euclidean space Rn is a real Lie group (with ordinary vector addition
as the group operation), more typical examples are given by matrix Lie groups, i.e.,
groups of invertible matrices (under matrix multiplication). For instance, the group
SO(3) of all rotations in R3 is a matrix Lie group.
One classifies Lie groups regarding their algebraic properties 7 (simple, semisimple, solvable, nilpotent, Abelian), their connectedness (connected or simply connected) and their compactness.8
To every Lie group, we can associate a Lie algebra which completely captures
the local structure of the group (at least if the Lie group is connected).9
7

If G and H are Lie groups (both real or both complex), then a Liegrouphomomorphism
f : G H is a group homomorphism which is also an analytic map (one can show that it is
equivalent to require only that f be continuous). The composition of two such homomorphisms
is again a homomorphism, and the class of all (real or complex) Lie groups, together with these
morphisms, forms a category. The two Lie groups are called isomorphic iff there exists a bijective
homomorphism between them whose inverse is also a homomorphism. Isomorphic Lie groups do
not need to be distinguished for all practical purposes; they only differ in the notation of their
elements.
8
An ntorus T n = S 1 S 1 S 1 (as defined above) is an example of a compact Abelian
Lie group. This follows from the fact that the unit circle S 1 is a compact Abelian Lie group (when
identified with the unit complex numbers with multiplication). Group multiplication on T n is then
defined by coordinatewise multiplication.
Toroidal groups play an important part in the theory of compact Lie groups. This is due in part
to the fact that in any compact Lie group one can always find a maximal torus; that is, a closed
subgroup which is a torus of the largest possible dimension.
9
Conventionally, one can regard any field X of tangent vectors on a Lie group as a partial
differential operator, denoting by Xf the Lie derivative (the directional derivative) of the scalar
field f in the direction of X. Then a vectorfield on a Lie group G is said to be leftinvariant if it
commutes with left translation, which means the following. Define Lg [f ](x) = f (gx) for any analytic
function f : G R and all g, x G. Then the vectorfield X is leftinvariant iff XLg = Lg X for
all g G. Similarly, instead of R, we can use C. The set of all vectorfields on an analytic manifold
is a Lie algebra over R (or C).
On a Lie group G, the leftinvariant vectorfields form a subalgebra, the Lie algebra g associated
with G. This Lie algebra is finitedimensional (it has the same dimension as the manifold G) which
makes it susceptible to classification attempts. By classifying g, one can also get a handle on the
group G. The representation theory of simple Lie groups is the best and most important example.
Every element v of the tangent space Te at the identity element e of G determines a unique

20

4.1

Definition of a Lie Group

A Lie group is a smooth (Banach) manifold M that has at the same time a group
Gstructure consistent with its manifold M structure in the sense that group multiplication : G G G, (g, h) 7 gh and the group inversion : G G, g 7
g1 are C k maps. A point e G is called the group identity element (see e.g.,
[21, 22, 1, 3]).
For example, any nD Banach vector space V is an Abelian Lie group with group
operations : V V V , (x, y) = x + y, and : V V , (x) = x. The identity
is just the zero vector. We call such a Lie group a vector group.
Let G and H be two Lie groups. A map G H is said to be a morphism of
Lie groups (or their smooth homomorphism) if it is their homomorphism as abstract
groups and their smooth map as manifolds.
Similarly, a group G which is at the same time a topological space is said to be
a topological group if both maps (, ) are continuous, i.e., C 0 maps for it. The
homomorphism G H of topological groups is said to be continuous if it is a
continuous map.
A topological group (as well as a smooth manifold) is not necessarily Hausdorff.
leftinvariant vectorfield whose value at the element g of G is denoted by gv; the vector space
underlying the Lie algebra g may therefore be identified with Te .
Every vectorfield v in the Lie algebra g determines a function c : R G whose derivative
everywhere is given by the corresponding leftinvariant vectorfield: c (t) = T Lc(t) v and which
has the property: c(s + t) = c(s)c(t),
(for all s and t) (the operation on the r.h.s. is the group
multiplication in G). The formal similarity of this formula with the one valid for the elementary
exponential function justifies the definition: exp(v) = c(1). This is called the exponential map,
and it maps the Lie algebra g into the Lie group G. It provides a diffeomorphism between a
neighborhood of 0 in g and a neighborhood of e in G. This exponential map is a generalization of
the exponential function for real numbers (since R is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of positive
real numbers with multiplication), for complex numbers (since C is the Lie algebra of the Lie
group of nonzero complex numbers with multiplication) and for matrices (since M (n, R) with the
regular commutator is the Lie algebra of the Lie group GL(n, R) of all invertible matrices). As the
exponential map is surjective on some neighborhood N of e, it is common to call elements of the
Lie algebra infinitesimal generators of the group G.
The exponential map and the Lie algebra determine the local group structure of every connected
Lie group, because of the BakerCampbellHausdorff formula: there exists a neighborhood U of
the zero element of the Lie algebra g, such that for u, v U we have
exp(u)exp(v) = exp(u + v + 1/2[u, v] + 1/12[[u, v], v] 1/12[[u, v], u] ...),
where the omitted terms are known and involve Lie brackets of four or more elements. In case u
and v commute, this formula reduces to the familiar exponential law :
exp(u)exp(v) = exp(u + v).
Every homomorphism f : G H of Lie groups induces a homomorphism between the corresponding Lie algebras g and h. The association G = g is called the Lie Functor.

21

A topological group G is Hausdorff iff its identity is closed. As a corollary we have

that every Lie group is a Hausdorff topological group.
For every g in a Lie group G, the two maps,
Lg : G G,

Rh : G G,

h 7 gh,
g 7 gh,

are called left and right translation maps. Since Lg Lh = Lgh , and Rg Rh = Rgh ,
it follows that (Lg )1 = Lg1 and (Rg )1 = Rg1 , so both Lg and Rg are diffeomorphisms. Moreover Lg Rh = Rh Lg , i.e., left and right translation commute.
A vectorfield X on G is called leftinvariant vectorfield if for every g G,
Lg X = X, that is, if (Th Lg )X(h) = X(gh) for all h G, i.e., the following diagram
commutes:
T Lg
TG
TG

X
G

Lg

A Riemannian metric on a Lie group G is called left-invariant if it is preserved by

all left translations Lg , i.e., if the derivative of left translation carries every vector to
a vector of the same length. Similarly, a vector field X on G is called leftinvariant
if (for every g G) Lg X = X.

4.2

Lie Algebra

An algebra A is a vector space with a product. The product must have the property
that
a(uv) = (au)v = u(av),
for every a R and u, v A. A map : A A between algebras is called an
algebra homomorphism if (u v) = (u) (v). A vector subspace I of an algebra
A is called a left ideal (resp. right ideal) if it is closed under algebra multiplication
and if u A and i I implies that ui I (resp. iu I). A subspace I is said
to be a twosided ideal if it is both a left and right ideal. An ideal may not be an
algebra itself, but the quotient of an algebra by a twosided ideal inherits an algebra
structure from A.
A Lie algebra is an algebra A where the multiplication, i.e., the Lie bracket
(u, v) 7 [u, v], has the following properties:
LA 1. [u, u] = 0 for every u A, and
LA 2. [u, [v, w]] + [w, [u, v]] + [v, w, u]] = 0 for all u, v, w A.
22

The condition LA 2 is usually called Jacobi identity. A subspace E A of a Lie

algebra is called a Lie subalgebra if [u, v] E for every u, v E. A map : A A
between Lie algebras is called a Lie algebra homomorphism if ([u, v]) = [(u), (v)]
for each u, v A.
All Lie algebras (over a given field K) and all smooth homomorphisms between
them form the category LAL, which is itself a complete subcategory of the category
AL of all algebras and their homomorphisms.
Let XL (G) denote the set of leftinvariant vectorfields on G; it is a Lie subalgebra of X (G), the set of all vectorfields on G, since Lg [X, Y ] = [Lg X, Lg Y ] = [X, Y ],
so the Lie bracket [X, Y ] XL (G).
Let e be the identity element of G. Then for each on the tangent space Te G we
define a vectorfield X on G by X (g) = Te Lg (). XL (G) and Te G are isomorphic
as vector spaces. Define the Lie bracket on Te G by [, ] = [X , X ] (e) for all
, Te G. This makes Te G into a Lie algebra. Also, by construction, we have
[X , X ] = X[,] ; this defines a bracket in Te G via left extension. The vector space
Te G with the above algebra structure is called the Lie algebra of the Lie group G
and is denoted g.
For example, let V be a nD vector space. Then Te V V and the leftinvariant
vectorfield defined by Te V is the constant vectorfield X () = , for all V .
The Lie algebra of V is V itself.
Since any two elements of an Abelian Lie group G commute, it follows that all
adjoint operators Adg , g G, equal the identity. Therefore, the Lie algebra g is
Abelian; that is, [, ] = 0 for all , g.
For example, G = SO(3) is the group of rotations of 3D Euclidean space, i.e.
the configuration space of a rigid body fixed at a point. A motion of the body is
then described by a curve g = g(t) in the group SO(3). Its Lie algebra g = so(3) is
the 3D vector space of angular velocities of all possible rotations. The commutator
in this algebra is the usual vector (cross) product (see, e.g. [1, 3, 9]).
A rotation velocity g of the rigid body (fixed at a point) is a tangent vector to
the Lie group G = SO(3) at the point g G. To get the angular velocity, we must
carry this vector to the tangent space T Ge of the group at the identity, i.e. to its Lie
algebra g = so(3). This can be done in two ways: by left and right translation, Lg
and Rg . As a result, we obtain two different vector fields in the Lie algebra so(3) :
c = Lg1 g so(3)

and

x = Rg1 g so(3),

which are called the angular velocity in the body and the angular velocity in space,
respectively.
The dual space g to the Lie algebra g = so(3) is the space of angular momenta
. The kinetic energy T of a body is determined by the vector field of angular
23

velocity in the body and does not depend on the position of the body in space.
Therefore, kinetic energy gives a left-invariant Riemannian metric on the rotation
group G = SO(3).

4.3

One-Parameter Subgroup

Let X be a leftinvariant vectorfield on G corresponding to in g. Then there is

a unique integral curve : R G of X starting at e, i.e., (see, e.g. [8, 9])


(0) = e
(t) = X (t) ,

(t) is a smooth oneparameter subgroup of G, i.e., (t + s) = (t) (s), since,

as functions of t
both sides equal (s) at t = 0 and both satisfy differential equation
(t)

= X (t) by left invariance of X , so they are equal. Left invariance can be

also used to show that (t) is defined for all t R. Moreover, if : R G is a
oneparameter subgroup of G, i.e., a smooth homomorphism of the additive group

R into G, then = with = (0),

since taking derivative at s = 0 in the relation
(t + s) = (t) (s)

gives

(t)
= X(0)
((t)) ,

so = since both equal e at t = 0. Therefore, all oneparameter subgroups of G

are of the form (t) for some g.

4.4

Exponential Map

The map exp : g G, given by (see, e.g. [3, 8, 9]):

exp() = (1),

exp(0) = e

is called the exponential map of the Lie algebra g of G into G. exp is a C k map, similar to the projection of tangent and cotangent bundles; exp is locally a
diffeomorphism from a neighborhood of zero in g onto a neighborhood of e in G; if
f : G H is a smooth homomorphism of Lie groups, then
f expG = expH Te f .
Also, in this case
exp(s) = (s).
Indeed, for fixed s R, the curve t 7 (ts), which at t = 0 passes through e,
satisfies the differential equation




d
(ts) = sX (ts) = Xs (ts) .
dt
24

Since s (t) satisfies the same differential equation and passes through e at t = 0, it
follows that s (t) = (st). Putting t = 1 induces exp(s) = (s).
Hence exp maps the line s in g onto the oneparameter subgroup (s) of G,
which is tangent to at e. It follows from left invariance that the flow Ft of X
satisfies Ft (g) = g exp(s).
Globally, the exponential map exp is a natural operation, i.e., for any morphism
: G H of Lie groups G and H and a Lie functor F, the following diagram
commutes:
F()
F(G)
F(H)
exp

exp

Let G1 and G2 be Lie groups with Lie algebras g1 and g2 . Then G1 G2 is a

Lie group with Lie algebra g1 g2 , and the exponential map is given by:

exp : g1 g2 G1 G2 ,

( 1 , 2 ) 7 (exp1 ( 1 ), exp2 ( 2 )) .

For example, in case of a nD vector space, or infinitedimensional Banach space,

the exponential map is the identity.
The unit circle in the complex plane S 1 = {z C : |z| = 1} is an Abelian Lie
group under multiplication. The tangent space Te S 1 is the imaginary axis, and we
identify R with Te S 1 by t 7 2it. With this identification, the exponential map
exp : R S 1 is given by exp(t) = e2it .
The nD torus T n = S 1 S 1 (n times) is an Abelian Lie group. The exponential map exp : Rn T n is given by
exp(t1 , ..., tn ) = (e2it1 , ..., e2itn ).
Since S 1 = R/Z, it follows that T n = Rn /Zn , the projection Rn T n being given
by the exp map.

4.5

Adjoint Representation

For every g G, the map (see, e.g. [1, 3, 8, 9]):

Adg = Te Rg1 Lg : g g

is called the adjoint map, or adjoint operator associated with g.

For each g and g G we have
exp (Adg ) = g (exp ) g1 .
25

The relation between the adjoint map and the Lie bracket is the following: For
all , g we have

d 
Ad
= [, ].
dt t=0 exp(t)

Left and right translations induce operators on the cotangent space T Gg dual
to Lg and Rg , denoted by (for every h G):
Lg : T Ggh T Gh ,

Rg : T Ghg T Gh .

The transpose operators Adg : g g satisfy the relations Adgh = Adh Adg (for every
g, h G) and constitute the co-adjoint representation of the Lie group G. The
co-adjoint representation plays an important role in all questions related to (left)
invariant metrics on the Lie group. According to A. Kirillov, the orbit of any vector
field X in a Lie algebra g in a co-adjoint representation Adg is itself a symplectic
manifold and therefore a phase space for a Hamiltonian mechanical system.
A Lie subgroup H of G is a subgroup H of G which is also a submanifold of
G. Then h is a Lie subalgebra of g and moreover h = { g| exp(t) H, for all
t R}.
One can characterize Lebesgue measure up to a multiplicative constant on Rn by
its invariance under translations. Similarly, on a locally compact group there is a
unique (up to a nonzero multiplicative constant) leftinvariant measure, called Haar
measure. For Lie groups the existence of such measures is especially simple: Let G be
a Lie group. Then there is a volume form U b5, unique up to nonzero multiplicative
constants, that is leftinvariant. If G is compact, U b5 is right invariant as well.

4.6

Actions of Lie Groups on Smooth Manifolds

Let M be a smooth manifold. An action of a Lie group G (with the unit element
e) on M is a smooth map : G M M, such that for all x M and g, h G,
(i) (e, x) = x and (ii) (g, (h, x)) = (gh, x). In other words, letting g : x
M 7 g (x) = (g, x) M , we have (i) e = idM and (ii) g h = gh . g is a
diffeomorphism, since (g )1 = g1 . We say that the map g G 7 g Dif f (M )
is a homomorphism of G into the group of diffeomorphisms of M . In case that M
is a vector space and each g is a linear operator, the function of G on M is called
a representation of G on M (see, e.g. [1, 3, 8, 9]).
An action of G on M is said to be transitive group action, if for every x, y M ,
there is g G such that (g, x) = y; effective group action, if g = idM implies g = e,
that is g 7 g is 11; and free group action, if for each x M , g 7 g (x) is 11.
For example,

26

1. G = R acts on M = R by translations; explicitly,

: G M M,

(s, x) = x + s.

Then for x R, Ox = R. Hence M/G is a single point, and the action is

transitive and free.
2. A complete flow t of a vectorfield X on M gives an action of R on M , namely
(t, x) R M 7 t (x) M.
3. Left translation Lg : G G defines an effective action of G on itself. It is also
transitive.
4. The coadjoint action of G on g is given by


Ad : (g, ) G g 7 Adg1 () = Te (Rg1 Lg ) g .

Let be an action of G on M . For x M the orbit of x is defined by

Ox = {g (x)|g G} M
and the isotropy group of at x is given by
Gx = {g G|(g, x) = x} G.

An action of G on a manifold M defines an equivalence relation on M by the

relation belonging to the same orbit; explicitly, for x, y M , we write x y if there
exists a g G such that (g, x) = y, that is, if y Ox . The set of all orbits M/G is
called the group orbit space (see, e.g. [1, 3, 8, 9]).
For example, let M = R2 \{0}, G = SO(2), the group of rotations in plane, and
the action of G on M given by



cos sin
, (x, y) 7 (x cos y sin , x sin + y cos ).
sin cos
The action is always free and effective, and the orbits are concentric circles, thus the
orbit space is M/G R+ .
A crucial concept in mechanics is the infinitesimal description of an action. Let
: G M M be an action of a Lie group G on a smooth manifold M . For each
g,
: R M M,
(t, x) = (exp(t), x)
27

is an R-action on M . Therefore, exp(t) : M M is a flow on M ; the corresponding vectorfield on M , given by


d 
M (x) =  exp(t) (x)
dt t=0

is called the infinitesimal generator of the action, corresponding to in g.

The tangent space at x to an orbit Ox is given by
Tx Ox = { M (x)| g}.

Let : G M M be a smooth G action. For all g G, all , g and

all , R, we have:
(Adg )M = g1 M , [ M , M ] = [, ]M , and ( + )M = M + M .
Let M be a smooth manifold, G a Lie group and : G M M a Gaction
on M . We say that a smooth map f : M M is with respect to this action if for
all g G,
f g = g f .
Let f : M M be an equivariant smooth map. Then for any g we have
T f M = M f.

4.7

Basic Tables of Lie Groups and Their Lie Algebras

One classifies Lie groups regarding their algebraic properties (simple, semisimple,
solvable, nilpotent, Abelian), their connectedness (connected or simply connected)
and their compactness (see Tables A.1A.3). This is the content of the Hilbert 5th
problem.

28

Some real Lie groups and their Lie algebras:

Lie
group
Rn

Description

Remarks

Euclidean space
with addition

nonzero
real
numbers with
multiplication
positive
real
numbers with
multiplication
complex numbers of absolute
value 1, with
multiplication
nonzero
quaternions
with multiplication
quaternions of
absolute value
1, with multiplication;
a
3sphere

Abelian, simply
connected, not
compact
Abelian,
not
connected, not
compact
Abelian, simply
connected, not
compact
Abelian,
connected, not simply connected,
compact
simply
connected,
not
compact

R>0

S1
R/Z

S3

GL(n, R)

general
linear
group: invertible
nby-n
real matrices
GL+ (n, R) nby-n
real
matrices with
positive determinant

simply
connected,
compact,
simple
and
semi
simple, isomorphic to SU (2),
SO(3) and to
Spin(3)
not connected,
not compact

simply
nected,
compact

connot

29

Lie
algb.
Rn

Description

the Lie bracket

is zero

the Lie bracket

is zero

the Lie bracket

is zero

quaternions,
with Lie bracket
the commutator

R3

real 3vectors,
with Lie bracket
the cross product; isomorphic
to su(2) and to
so(3)

the Lie bracket

is zero

M(n, R) nby-n matrices, with Lie

bracket
the
commutator
M(n, R) nby-n matrices, with Lie
bracket
the
commutator

dim
/R
n

n2

n2

Classical real Lie groups and their Lie algebras:

Lie
group
SL(n, R)

Description

Remarks

special
linear
group:
real
matrices with
determinant 1
orthogonal
group:
real
orthogonal
matrices

simply
connected,
not
compact
if
n>1
not connected,
compact

SO(n, R)

special orthogonal group: real

orthogonal matrices with determinant 1

Spin(n)

spinor group

U (n)

unitary group:
complex unitary
nby-n matrices

connected, compact, for n 2:

not simply connected, for n =
3 and n
5: simple and
semisimple
simply
connected,
compact, for n = 3
and n 5:
simple
and
semisimple
isomorphic to
S 1 for n = 1,
not
simply
connected,
compact

SU (n)

special unitary
group: complex
unitary nby-n
matrices with
determinant 1

O(n, R)

simply
connected,
compact, for n 2:
simple
and
semisimple

30

Lie
Description
algb.
sl(n, R) square matrices
with trace 0,
with Lie bracket
the commutator
so(n, R) skew
symmetric
square
real
matrices, with
Lie
bracket
the commutator; so(3, R) is
isomorphic to
su(2) and to R3
with the cross
product
so(n, R) skew
symmetric
square
real
matrices, with
Lie bracket the
commutator

dim
/R
n2
1

so(n, R) skew
symmetric
square
real
matrices, with
Lie bracket the
commutator
u(n)
square
complex
matrices
A
satisfying
A = A , with
Lie bracket the
commutator
su(n)
square complex
matrices A with
trace 0 satisfying A = A ,
with Lie bracket
the commutator

n(n
1)/2

n(n
1)/2

n(n
1)/2

n2

n2
1

Basic complex Lie groups and their Lie algebras:10

Lie
group
Cn

Description

Remarks

group operation
is addition

nonzero
complex
numbers
with multiplication
general
linear
group: invertible
nby-n
complex matrices

Abelian, simply
connected, not
compact
Abelian,
not
simply
connected,
not
compact
simply
connected,
not
compact,
for
n = 1: isomorphic
to
C
simple,
semisimple,
simply
connected,
for
n 2: not
compact
not connected,
for n 2: not
compact

GL(n, C)

SL(n, C)

special
linear
group: complex
matrices with
determinant 1

O(n, C)

orthogonal
group:
complex orthogonal
matrices

SO(n, C)

special orthogonal group: complex orthogonal

matrices with
determinant 1

4.8

for n 2:
not
compact,
not
simply
connected, for
n = 3 and
n 5: simple
and semisimple

Lie
algb.
Cn

Description

the Lie bracket

is zero

the Lie bracket

is zero

dim
/C
n

M (n, C) nby-n matrices, with Lie

bracket
the
commutator

n2

sl(n, C) square matrices

with trace 0,
with Lie bracket
the commutator

n2
1

so(n, C) skew
symmetric
square complex
matrices, with
Lie bracket the
commutator
so(n, C) skew
symmetric
square complex
matrices, with
Lie bracket the
commutator

n(n
1)/2

n(n
1)/2

Representations of Lie groups

The idea of a representation of a Lie group plays an important role in the study of
continuous symmetry (see, e.g., [22]). A great deal is known about such representations, a basic tool in their study being the use of the corresponding infinitesimal
representations of Lie algebras.
Formally, a representation of a Lie group G on a vector space V (over a field K)
10

The dimensions given are dimensions over C. Note that every complex Lie group/algebra can
also be viewed as a real Lie group/algebra of twice the dimension.

31

is a group homomorphism G Aut(V ) from G to the automorphism group of V .

If a basis for the vector space V is chosen, the representation can be expressed as a
homomorphism into GL(n, K). This is known as a matrix representation.
On the Lie algebra level, there is a corresponding linear map from the Lie algebra
of G to End(V ) preserving the Lie bracket [, ].
If the homomorphism is in fact an monomorphism, the representation is said to
be faithful.
A unitary representation is defined in the same way, except that G maps to
unitary matrices; the Lie algebra will then map to skewHermitian matrices.
Now, if G is a semisimple group, its finitedimensional representations can be
decomposed as direct sums of irreducible representations. The irreducibles are indexed by highest weight; the allowable (dominant) highest weights satisfy a suitable
positivity condition. In particular, there exists a set of fundamental weights, indexed
by the vertices of the Dynkin diagram of G (see below), such that dominant weights
are simply nonnegative integer linear combinations of the fundamental weights.
If G is a commutative compact Lie group, then its irreducible representations
are simply the continuous characters of G. A quotient representation is a quotient
module of the group ring.

4.9

Root Systems and Dynkin Diagrams

A root system is a special configuration in Euclidean space that has turned out to
be fundamental in Lie theory as well as in its applications. Also, the classification
scheme for root systems, by Dynkin diagrams, occurs in parts of mathematics with
no overt connection to Lie groups (such as singularity theory, see e.g., [22]).
4.9.1

Definitions

Formally, a root system is a finite set of nonzero vectors (roots) spanning a

finitedimensional Euclidean space V and satisfying the following properties:
1. The only scalar multiples of a root in V which belong to are itself and
-.
2. For every root in V , the set is symmetric under reflection through the
hyperplane of vectors perpendicular to .
3. If and are vectors in , the projection of 2 onto the line through is an
integer multiple of .
The rank of a root system is the dimension of V . Two root systems may
be combined by regarding the Euclidean spaces they span as mutually orthogonal
32

subspaces of a common Euclidean space. A root system which does not arise from
such a combination, such as the systems A2 , B2 , and G2 in Figure 3, is said to be
irreducible.
Two irreducible root systems (V1 , 1 ) and (V2 , 2 ) are considered to be the same
if there is an invertible linear transformation V1 V2 which preserves distance up
to a scale factor and which sends 1 to 2 .
The group of isometries of V generated by reflections through hyperplanes associated to the roots of is called the Weyl group of as it acts faithfully on the
finite set , the Weyl group is always finite.
4.9.2

Classification

It is not too difficult to classify the root systems of rank 2 (see Figure 3).

Figure 3: Classification of root systems of rank 2.

Whenever is a root system in V and W is a subspace of V spanned by =
W , then is a root system in W . Thus, our exhaustive list of root systems
of rank 2 shows the geometric possibilities for any two roots in a root system. In
particular, two such roots meet at an angle of 0, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 135, 150, or 180
degrees.
In general, irreducible root systems are specified by a family (indicated by a
letter A to G) and the rank (indicated by a subscript n). There are four infinite
families:
An (n 1), which corresponds to the special unitary group, SU (n + 1);
Bn (n 2), which corresponds to the special orthogonal group, SO(2n + 1);
Cn (n 3), which corresponds to the symplectic group, Sp(2n);
Dn (n 4), which corresponds to the special orthogonal group, SO(2n),
as well as five exceptional cases: E6 , E7 , E8 , F4 , G2 .

33

4.9.3

Dynkin Diagrams

A Dynkin diagram is a graph with a few different kinds of possible edges (see Figure
4). The connected components of the graph correspond to the irreducible subalgebras of g. So a simple Lie algebras Dynkin diagram has only one component. The
rules are restrictive. In fact, there are only certain possibilities for each component,
corresponding to the classification of semisimple Lie algebras (see, e.g., [26]).

Figure 4: The problem of classifying irreducible root systems reduces to the problem
of classifying connected Dynkin diagrams.
The roots of a complex Lie algebra form a lattice of rank k in a Cartan subalgebra
h g, where k is the Lie algebra rank of g. Hence, the root lattice can be considered
a lattice in Rk . A vertex, or node, in the Dynkin diagram is drawn for each Lie
algebra simple root, which corresponds to a generator of the root lattice. Between
two nodes and , an edge is drawn if the simple roots are not perpendicular. One
line is drawn if the angle between them is 2/3, two lines if the angle is 3/4, and
three lines are drawn if the angle is 5/6. There are no other possible angles between
Lie algebra simple roots. Alternatively, the number of lines N between the simple
roots and is given by
N = A A =

2 h, i 2 h, i
= 4 cos2 ,
||2
||2

is an entry in the Cartan matrix (A ) (for details on Cartan

where A = 2h,i
||2
matrix see, e.g., [22]). In a Dynkin diagram, an arrow is drawn from the longer root
to the shorter root (when the angle is 3/4 or 5/6).
Here are some properties of admissible Dynkin diagrams:
1. A diagram obtained by removing a node from an admissible diagram is admissible.
2. An admissible diagram has no loops.
3. No node has more than three lines attached to it.
34

4. A sequence of nodes with only two single lines can be collapsed to give an
admissible diagram.
5. The only connected diagram with a triple line has two nodes.
A CoxeterDynkin diagram, also called a Coxeter graph, is the same as a Dynkin
diagram, but without the arrows. The Coxeter diagram is sufficient to characterize
the algebra, as can be seen by enumerating connected diagrams.
The simplest way to recover a simple Lie algebra from its Dynkin diagram is to
first reconstruct its Cartan matrix (Aij ). The ith node and jth node are connected
by Aij Aji lines. Since Aij = 0 iff Aji = 0, and otherwise Aij {3, 2, 1}, it is
easy to find Aij and Aji , up to order, from their product. The arrow in the diagram
indicates which is larger. For example, if node 1 and node 2 have two lines between
them, from node 1 to node 2, then A12 = 1 and A21 = 2.
However, it is worth pointing out that each simple Lie algebra can be constructed
concretely. For instance, the infinite families An , Bn , Cn , and Dn correspond to
the special linear Lie algebra gl(n + 1, C), the odd orthogonal Lie algebra so(2n +
1, C), the symplectic Lie algebra sp(2n, C), and the even orthogonal Lie algebra
so(2n, C). The other simple Lie algebras are called exceptional Lie algebras, and
have constructions related to the octonions.
To prove this classification Theorem, one uses the angles between pairs of roots to
encode the root system in a much simpler combinatorial object, the Dynkin diagram.
The Dynkin diagrams can then be classified according to the scheme given above.
To every root system is associated a corresponding Dynkin diagram. Otherwise,
the Dynkin diagram can be extracted from the root system by choosing a base, that
is a subset of which is a basis of V with the special property that every vector
in when written in the basis has either all coefficients 0 or else all 0.
The vertices of the Dynkin diagram correspond to vectors in . An edge is
drawn between each nonorthogonal pair of vectors; it is a double edge if they make
an angle of 135 degrees, and a triple edge if they make an angle of 150 degrees. In
addition, double and triple edges are marked with an angle sign pointing toward the
shorter vector.
Although a given root system has more than one base, the Weyl group acts
transitively on the set of bases. Therefore, the root system determines the Dynkin
diagram. Given two root systems with the same Dynkin diagram, we can match up
roots, starting with the roots in the base, and show that the systems are in fact the
same.
Thus the problem of classifying root systems reduces to the problem of classifying
possible Dynkin diagrams, and the problem of classifying irreducible root systems
reduces to the problem of classifying connected Dynkin diagrams. Dynkin diagrams
35

encode the inner product on E in terms of the basis , and the condition that this
inner product must be positive definite turns out to be all that is needed to get the
desired classification (see Figure 4).
In detail, the individual root systems can be realized casebycase, as in the
following paragraphs:
An . Let V be the subspace of Rn+1
for which the coordinates sum to 0, and
let be the set of vectors in V of length 2 and with integer coordinates in Rn+1 .
Such a vector must have all but two coordinates equal to 0, one coordinate equal to
1, and one equal to -1, so there are n2 + n roots in all.

Bn . Let V = Rn , and let consist of all integer vectors in V of length 1 or 2.

The total number of roots is 2n2 .

Cn : Let V = Rn , and let consist of all integer vectors in V of 2 together

with all vectors of the form 2, where is an integer vector of length 1. The total
number of roots is 2n2 . The total number of roots is 2n2 .

Dn . Let V = Rn , and let consist of all integer vectors in V of length 2. The

total number of roots is 2n(n 1).

En . For V8 , let V = R8 , and let E8 denote the set of vectors of length 2

such that the coordinates of 2 are all integers and are either all even or all odd.
Then E7 can be constructed as the intersection of E8 with the hyperplane of vectors
perpendicular to a fixed root in E8 , and E6 can be constructed as the intersection
of E8 with two such hyperplanes corresponding to roots and which are neither
orthogonal to one another nor scalar multiples of one another. The root systems
E6 , E7 , and E8 have 72, 126, and 240 roots respectively.

F4 . For F4 , let V = R4 , and let denote the set of vectors of length 1 or 2

such that the coordinates of 2 are all integers and are either all even or all odd.
There are 48 roots in this system.
G2 . There are 12 roots in G2 , which form the vertices of a hexagram.
4.9.4

Irreducible Root Systems

Irreducible root systems classify a number of related objects in Lie theory, notably:
1. Simple complex Lie algebras;
2. Simple complex Lie groups;
3. Simply connected complex Lie groups which are simple modulo centers; and
4. Simple compact Lie groups.
In each case, the roots are nonzero weights of the adjoint representation.
A root system can also be said to describe a plants root and associated systems.
36

4.10

Simple and Semisimple Lie Groups and Algebras

A simple Lie group is a Lie group which is also a simple group. These groups, and
groups closely related to them, include many of the socalled classical groups of
geometry, which lie behind projective geometry and other geometries derived from
it by the Erlangen programme of Felix Klein. They also include some exceptional
groups, that were first discovered by those pursuing the classification of simple Lie
groups. The exceptional groups account for many special examples and configurations in other branches of mathematics. In particular the classification of finite
simple groups depended on a thorough prior knowledge of the exceptional possibilities.
The complete listing of the simple Lie groups is the basis for the theory of the
semisimple Lie groups and reductive groups, and their representation theory. This
has turned out not only to be a major extension of the theory of compact Lie groups
(and their representation theory), but to be of basic significance in mathematical
physics.
Such groups are classified using the prior classification of the complex simple
Lie algebras. It has been shown that a simple Lie group has a simple Lie algebra
that will occur on the list given there, once it is complexified (that is, made into a
complex vector space rather than a real one). This reduces the classification to two
further matters.
The groups SO(p, q, R) and SO(p + q, R), for example, give rise to different real
Lie algebras, but having the same Dynkin diagram. In general there may be different
real forms of the same complex Lie algebra.
Secondly, the Lie algebra only determines uniquely the simply connected (universal) cover G of the component containing the identity of a Lie group G. It may
well happen that G is not actually a simple group, for example having a nontrivial
center. We have therefore to worry about the global topology, by computing the
fundamental group of G (an Abelian group: a Lie group is an Hspace). This was
done by Elie Cartan.
For an example, take the special orthogonal groups in even dimension. With
I a scalar matrix in the center, these are not actually simple groups; and having
a twofold spin cover, they arent simplyconnected either. They lie between G
and G, in the notation above.
Recall that a semisimple module is a module in which each submodule is a direct
summand. In particular, a semisimple representation is completely reducible, i.e.,
is a direct sum of irreducible representations (under a descending chain condition).
Similarly, one speaks of an Abelian category as being semisimple when every object
has the corresponding property. Also, a semisimple ring is one that is semisimple as
a module over itself.
37

A semisimple matrix is diagonalizable over any algebraically closed field containing its entries. In practice this means that it has a diagonal matrix as its Jordan
normal form.
A Lie algebra g is called semisimple when it is a direct sum of simple Lie algebras,
i.e., nontrivial Lie algebras L whose only ideals are {0} and L itself. An equivalent
condition is that the Killing form
B(X, Y ) = Tr(Ad(X) Ad(Y ))
is nondegenerate [27]. The following properties can be proved equivalent for a
finitedimensional algebra L over a field of characteristic 0:
1. L is semisimple.
2. L has no nonzero Abelian ideal.
3. L has zero radical (the radical is the biggest solvable ideal).
4. Every representation of L is fully reducible, i.e., is a sum of irreducible representations.
5. L is a (finite) direct product of simple Lie algebras (a Lie algebra is called
simple if it is not Abelian and has no nonzero ideal ).
A connected Lie group is called semisimple when its Lie algebra is semisimple;
and the same holds for algebraic groups. Every finite dimensional representation
of a semisimple Lie algebra, Lie group, or algebraic group in characteristic 0 is
semisimple, i.e., completely reducible, but the converse is not true. Moreover, in
characteristic p > 0, semisimple Lie groups and Lie algebras have finite dimensional
representations which are not semisimple. An element of a semisimple Lie group or
Lie algebra is itself semisimple if its image in every finitedimensional representation
is semisimple in the sense of matrices.
Every semisimple Lie algebra g can be classified by its Dynkin diagram [22].

5
5.1

Some Classical Examples of Lie Groups

Galilei Group

The Galilei group is the group of transformations in space and time that connect
those Cartesian systems that are termed inertial frames in Newtonian mechanics.
The most general relationship between two such frames is the following. The origin
of the time scale in the inertial frame S may be shifted compared with that in S;
the orientation of the Cartesian axes in S may be different from that in S; the
origin O of the Cartesian frame in S may be moving relative to the origin O in S
at a uniform velocity. The transition from S to S involves ten parameters; thus the
Galilei group is a ten parameter group. The basic assumption inherent in Galilei
Newtonian relativity is that there is an absolute time scale, so that the only way
38

in which the time variables used by two different inertial observers could possibly
differ is that the zero of time for one of them may be shifted relative to the zero of
time for the other (see, e.g. [1, 8, 9]).
Galilei spacetime structure involves the following three elements:
1. World, as a 4D affine space A4 . The points of A4 are called world points or
events. The parallel transitions of the world A4 form a linear (i.e., Euclidean)
space R4 .
2. Time, as a linear map t : R4 R of the linear space of the world parallel
transitions onto the real time axes. Time interval from the event a A4 to
b A4 is called the number t(b a); if t(b a) = 0 then the events a and b are
called synchronous. The set of all mutually synchronous events consists a 3D
affine space A3 , being a subspace of the world A4 . The kernel of the mapping
t consists of the parallel transitions of A4 translating arbitrary (and every)
event to the synchronous one; it is a linear 3D subspace R3 of the space R4 .
3. Distance (metric) between the synchronous events,
(a, b) =k a b k,

for all

a, b A3 ,

given by the scalar product in R3 . The distance transforms arbitrary space of

synchronous events into the well known 3D Euclidean space E 3 .
The space A4 , with the Galilei spacetime structure on it, is called Galilei space.
Galilei group is the group of all possible transformations of the Galilei space, preserving its structure. The elements of the Galilei group are called Galilei transformations. Therefore, Galilei transformations are affine transformations of the world
A4 preserving the time intervals and distances between the synchronous events.
The direct product R R3 , of the time axes with the 3D linear space R3 with
a fixed Euclidean structure, has a natural Galilei structure. It is called Galilei
coordinate system.

5.2

General Linear Group

The group of linear isomorphisms of Rn to Rn is a Lie group of dimension n2 , called

the general linear group and denoted Gl(n, R). It is a smooth manifold, since it is
a subset of the vector space L(Rn , Rn ) of all linear maps of Rn to Rn , as Gl(n, R)
is the inverse image of R\{0} under the continuous map A 7 det A of L(Rn , Rn ) to
R. The group operation is composition (see, e.g. [1, 3, 8, 9]).
(A, B) Gl(n, R) Gl(n, R) 7 A B Gl(n, R)
39

and the inverse map is

A Gl(n, R) 7 A1 Gl(n, R).
If we choose a basis in Rn , we can represent each element A Gl(n, R) by an
invertible (n n)-matrix. The group operation is then matrix multiplication and
the inversion is matrix inversion. The identity is the identity matrix In . The group
operations are smooth since the formulas for the product and inverse of matrices are
smooth in the matrix components.
The Lie algebra of Gl(n, R) is gl(n), the vector space L(Rn , Rn ) of all linear
transformations of Rn , with the commutator bracket
[A, B] = AB BA.
For every A L(Rn , Rn ),
A : t R 7 A (t) =

i
X
t
i=0

i!

Ai Gl(n, R)

is a oneparameter subgroup of Gl(n, R), because

A (0) = I

and

A (t) =

X
i=0

ti1
Ai = A (t) A
(i 1)!

Hence A is an integral curve of the leftinvariant vectorfield XA . Therefore, the

exponential map is given by
n

exp : A L(R , R ) 7 exp(A) e = A (1) =

X
Ai
i=0

i!

Gl(n, R).

For each A Gl(n, R) the corresponding adjoint map

AdA : L(Rn , Rn ) L(Rn , Rn )
is given by
AdA B = A B A1 .

5.3

Rotational Lie Groups in Human/Humanoid Biomechanics

Local kinematics at each rotational robot or (synovial) human joint, is defined as

a group action of an nD constrained rotational Lie group SO(n) on the Euclidean
space Rn . In particular, there is an action of SO(2)-group in uniaxial human joints
40

(cylindrical, or hinge joints, like knee and elbow) and an action of SO(3)-group
in threeaxial human joints (spherical, or ballandsocket joints, like hip, shoulder,
neck, wrist and ankle). In both cases, SO(n) acts, with its operators of rotation,
on the vector x = {x }, (i = 1, 2, 3) of external, Cartesian coordinates of the parent
bodysegment, depending, at the same time, on the vector q = {q s }, (s = 1, , n)
on n groupparameters, i.e., joint angles (see [5, 6, 8, 9]).
Each joint rotation R SO(n) defines a map
R : x 7 x ,

R(x , q s ) = Rqs x ,

where Rqs SO(n) are joint group operators. The vector v = {vs }, (s = 1, , n)
of n infinitesimal generators of these rotations, i.e., joint angular velocities, given by


R(x , q s )

vs =

q s
x
q=0
constitute an nD Lie algebra so(n) corresponding to the joint rotation group SO(n).
Conversely, each joint group operator Rqs , representing a oneparameter subgroup of
SO(n), is defined as the exponential map of the corresponding joint group generator
vs
Rqs = exp(q s vs )
This exponential map represents a solution of the joint operator differential equation
in the joint groupparameter space {q s }
dRqs
= vs Rq s .
dq s
5.3.1

Uniaxial Group of Joint Rotations

The uniaxial joint rotation in a single Cartesian plane around a perpendicular axis,
e.g., xyplane about the z axis, by an internal joint angle , leads to the following
transformation of the joint coordinates:
x = x cos y sin ,

y = x sin + y cos .

In this way, the joint SO(2)group, given by





cos sin
SO(2) = R =
| [0, 2] ,
sin cos
acts in a canonical way on the Euclidean plane R2 by

  


cos sin
x
x cos y sin
SO(2) =
,
7

.
sin cos
y
x sin y cos
41

Its associated Lie algebra so(2) is given by




0 t
so(2) =
|t R ,
t 0
since the curve SO(2) given by


cos t
sin t


1 0
passes through the identity I2 =
and
0 1


d 
0
(t) =


dt t=0
: t R 7 (t) =

sin t
cos t

SO(2),

then

so that I2 is a basis of so(2), since dim (SO(2)) = 1.

The exponential map exp : so(2) SO(2) is given by




0
cos t sin t
exp
= (1) =
.
0
sin t cos t

The infinitesimal generator of the action of SO(2) on R2 , i.e., joint angular

velocity v, is given by

v = y
+x ,
x
y
since

 
 
d 
d 
cos tv sin tv
x
vR2 (x, y) =  exp(tv) (x, y) = 
.
sin
tv
cos
tv
y
dt t=0
dt t=0
The momentum map J : T R2 R associated to the lifted action of SO(2) on
T R2 R4 is given by
J (x, y, p1 , p2 ) = xpy ypx ,

since

J (x, y, px , py ) () = (px dx + py dy)(vR2 ) = vpx y + vpy x.

by

The Lie group SO(2) acts on the symplectic manifold (R4 , = dpx dx+dpy dx)




cos sin

, (x, y, px , py )
sin cos
= (x cos y sin , x sin + y cos , px cos py sin , px sin + py cos ) .
42

5.3.2

ThreeAxial Group of Joint Rotations

The threeaxial SO(3)group of humanlike joint rotations depends on three parameters, Euler joint angles q i = (, , ), defining the rotations about the Cartesian
coordinate triedar (x, y, z) placed at the joint pivot point. Each of the Euler angles
are defined in the constrained range (, ), so the joint group space is a constrained
sphere of radius (see [5, 6, 8, 9]).
Let G = SO(3) = {A M33 (R) : At A = I3 , det(A) = 1} be the group
of rotations in R3 . It is a Lie group and dim(G) = 3. Let us isolate its one
parameter joint subgroups, i.e., consider the three operators of the finite joint rotations R , R , R SO(3), given by

1
0
0
cos 0 sin
cos sin 0
R = 0 cos sin , R =
0
1
0 , R = sin cos 0
0 sin cos
sin 0 cos
0
0
1

corresponding respectively to rotations about xaxis by an angle , about yaxis

by an angle , and about zaxis by an angle .
The total threeaxial joint rotation A is defined as the product of above one
parameter rotations R , R , R , i.e., A = R R R is equal11

cos cos cos sin sin

cos cos + cos cos sin sin sin
A = sin cos cos sin sin sin sin + cos cos cos sin cos .
sin sin
sin cos
cos

However, the order of these matrix products matters: different order products give
different results, as the matrix product is noncommutative product. This is the
reason why Hamiltons quaternions 12 are today commonly used to parameterize the
SO(3)group, especially in the field of 3D computer graphics.
The oneparameter rotations R , R , R define curves in SO(3) starting from
!
I3 =

1 0
0 1
0 0

0
0
1

. Their derivatives in = 0, = 0 and = 0 belong to the asso-

ciated tangent Lie algebra so(3). That is the corresponding infinitesimal generators
of joint rotations joint angular velocities v , v , v so(3) are respectively given
11

Note that this product is noncommutative, so it really depends on the order of multiplications.
Recall that the set of Hamiltons quaternions H represents an extension of the set of complex
numbers C. We can compute a rotation about the unit vector, u by an angle . The quaternion q
that computes this rotation is



.
q = cos , u sin
2
2
12

43

by
v =

"

0 0
0 0
0 1

0
1
0

= y
+z ,
z
y

v =

"

0 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 0

= x

v =

"

0 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 0

= z

+x ,
x
z

+y .
y
x

Moreover, the elements are linearly independent and so

0 a b
0 |a, b, R .
so(3) = a

b
0

The Lie algebra so(3) is identified with R3 by associating to each v = (v , v , v )

"
#

R3 the matrix v so(3) given by v =

identities:

0 a
a
0
b

. Then we have the following

1. u[
v = [
u, v]; and
2. u v = 12 Tr(
u v).
The exponential map exp : so(3) SO(3) is given by Rodrigues relation
sin kvk
1
exp(v) = I +
v+
kvk
2

sin kvk
2
kvk
2

!2

v2

where the norm kvk is given by

kvk =

(v 1 )2 + (v 2 )2 + (v 3 )2 .

The the dual, cotangent Lie algebra so(3) , includes the three joint angular momenta p , p , p so(3) , derived from the joint velocities v by multiplying them
with corresponding moments of inertia.
Note that the parameterization of SO(3)rotations is the subject of continuous
research and development in many theoretical and applied fields of mechanics, such
as rigid body, structural, and multibody dynamics, robotics, spacecraft attitude
dynamics, navigation, image processing, etc.

44

5.3.3

The Heavy Top

Consider a rigid body moving with a fixed point but under the influence of gravity.
This problem still has a configuration space SO(3), but the symmetry group is only
the circle group S 1 , consisting of rotations about the direction of gravity. One says
that gravity has broken the symmetry from SO(3) to S 1 . This time, eliminating the
S 1 symmetry mysteriously leads one to the larger Euclidean group SE(3) of rigid
motion of R3 . Conversely, we can start with SE(3) as the configuration space for
the rigidbody and reduce out translations to arrive at SO(3) as the configuration
space. The equations of motion for a rigid body with a fixed point in a gravitational
field give an interesting example of a system that is Hamiltonian. The underlying
Lie algebra consists of the algebra of infinitesimal Euclidean motions in R3 (see
[1, 3, 8, 9]).
The basic phasespace we start with is again T SO(3), parameterized by Euler
angles and their conjugate momenta. In these variables, the equations are in canonical Hamiltonian form. However, the presence of gravity breaks the symmetry, and
the system is no longer SO(3) invariant, so it cannot be written entirely in terms of
the body angular momentum p. One also needs to keep track of , the direction of
gravity as seen from the body. This is defined by = A1 k, where k points upward
and A is the element of SO(3) describing the current configuration of the body. The
equations of motion are
I2 I3
p2 p3 + M gl(2 3 3 2 ),
I2 I3
I3 I1
p3 p1 + M gl(3 1 1 3 ),
=
I3 I1
I1 I2
=
p1 p2 + M gl(1 2 2 1 ),
I1 I2
and
= ,

p 1 =
p 2
p 3

where is the bodys angular velocity vector, I1 , I2 , I3 are the bodys principal
moments of inertia, M is the bodys mass, g is the acceleration of gravity, is the
body fixed unit vector on the line segment connecting the fixed point with the bodys
center of mass, and l is the length of this segment.

5.4

Euclidean Groups of Rigid Body Motion

In this subsection we give description of two most important Lie groups in classical
mechanics in 2D and 3D, SE(2) and SE(3), respectively (see [4, 8, 9]).

45

5.4.1

Special Euclidean Group SE(2) in the Plane

The motion in uniaxial human joints is naturally modelled by the special Euclidean
group in the plane, SE(2). It consists of all transformations of R2 of the form Az +a,
where z, a R2 , and



cos sin
A SO(2) = matrices of the form
.
sin cos
In other words,
group

 SE(2) consists of matrices of the form:
R a
(R , a) =
, where a R2 and R is the rotation matrix:
0 I


cos sin
R =
, while I is the 3 3 identity matrix. The inverse (R , a)1
sin

cos

is given by

(R , a)

R a
0 I

1

R R a
0
I

The Lie algebra se(2) of SE(2) consists of 3 3 block matrices of the form




0 1
J v
,
(J T = J 1 = J),
,
where
J=
1 0
0
0
with the usual commutator bracket. If we identify se(2) with R3 by the isomorphism


J v
se(2) 7 (, v) R3 ,
0
0
then the expression for the Lie algebra bracket becomes
[(, v1 , v2 ), (, w1 , w2 )] = (0, v2 w2 , w1 v1) = (0, J T w J T v),
where v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = (w1 , w2 ).
The adjoint group action of


R a
(R , a)
0 I

on

(, v) =

J
0

is given by the group conjugation,




 
R a
J v
R R a
J
=
0 I
0
0
0
I
0
46

v
0

Ja + R v
0

or, in coordinates,
Ad(R ,a) (, v) = (, Ja + R v).

(2)

In proving (2) we used the

 identityR J = JR . Identify the dual algebra, se(2) ,
2J 0
with matrices of the form
, via the nondegenerate pairing given by the
0
trace of the product. Thus, se(2) is isomorphic to R3 via


2J 0
se(2) 7 (, ) R3 ,
0

so that in these coordinates, the pairing between se(2) and se(2) becomes
h(, ), (, v)i = + v,
that is, the usual dot product in R3 . The coadjoint group action is thus given by
Ad(R

1
,a)

(, ) = ( R Ja + R ).

(3)

Formula (3) shows that the coadjoint orbits are the cylinders T S1 = {(, )| kk =
const} if 6= 0 together with the points are on the axis. The canonical cotangent
bundle projection : T S1 S1 is defined as (, ) = .
5.4.2

Special Euclidean Group SE(3) in the 3D Space

The most common group structure in human biodynamics is the special Euclidean
group in 3D space, SE(3). Briefly, the Euclidean SE(3)group is defined as a
semidirect (noncommutative) product of 3D rotations and 3D translations, SE(3) :=
SO(3) R3 (see [4, 8, 9]). Its most important subgroups are the following:
Subgroup
SO(3), group of rotations
in 3D (a spherical joint)
SE(2), special Euclidean group
in 2D (all planar motions)
SO(2), group of rotations in 2D
subgroup of SE(2)group
(a revolute joint)
3
R , group of translations in 3D
(all spatial displacements)

Definition
Set of all proper orthogonal
3 3 rotational matrices
Set of all 3 3 matrices:

cos sin rx
sin cos ry
0
0
1
Set of all proper orthogonal
2 2 rotational matrices
included in SE(2) group
Euclidean 3D vector space

47

Lie Group SE(3) and Its Lie Algebra An element of SE(3) is a pair (A, a)
where A SO(3) and a R3 . The action of SE(3) on R3 is the rotation A followed
by translation by the vector a and has the expression
(A, a) x = Ax + a.
Using this formula, one sees that multiplication and inversion in SE(3) are given by
(A, a)(B, b) = (AB, Ab + a)

and

(A, a)1 = (A1 , A1 a),

for A, B SO(3) and a, b R3 . The identity element is (l, 0).

The Lie algebra of the Euclidean group SE(3) is se(3) = R3 R3 with the Lie
bracket
[(, u), (, v)] = ( , v u).
(4)
The Lie algebra of the Euclidean group has a structure that is a special case of
what is called a semidirect product. Here it is the product of the group of rotations
with the corresponding group of translations. It turns out that semidirect products
occur under rather general circumstances when the symmetry in T G is broken (see
[4, 8, 9]).
The dual Lie algebra of the Euclidean group SE(3) is se(3) = R3 R3 with the
same Lie bracket (5).
Representation of SE(3) In other words, SE(3) := SO(3) R3 is the Lie group
consisting of isometries of R3 .
Using homogeneous coordinates, we can represent SE(3) as follows,



R p
3
SE(3) =
GL(4, R) : R SO(3), p R ,
0 1
with the action on R3 given by the usual matrixvector product when we identify
R3 with the section R3 {1} R4 . In particular, given


R p
g=
SE(3),
0 1
and q R3 , we have

g q = Rq + p,

or as a matrixvector product,

  

Rq + p
q
R p
.
=
1
1
0 1
48

Lie algebra of SE(3)

The Lie algebra of SE(3) is given by




v
M4 (R) : so(3), v R3 ,
se(3) =
0 0

where the attitude matrix : R3 so(3) is given by

0
z y
0
x .
= z
y x
0
The exponential map of SE(3) The exponential map, exp : se(3) SE(3), is
given by

 

v
exp() Av
exp
=
,
0 0
0
1
where

A=I+

1 cos kk
kk sin kk 2
+
,
2
kk
kk3

and exp() is given by the Rodriguez formula,

exp() = I +

sin kk
1 cos kk 2
.
+
kk
kk2

In other words, the special Euclidean group SE(3) := SO(3) R3 is the Lie
group consisting of isometries of the Euclidean 3D space R3 . An element of SE(3)
is a pair (A, a) where A SO(3) and a R3 . The action of SE(3) on R3 is the
rotation A followed by translation by the vector a and has the expression
(A, a) x = Ax + a.
The Lie algebra of the Euclidean group SE(3) is se(3) = R3 R3 with the Lie
bracket
[(, u), (, v)] = ( , v u).
(5)
Using homogeneous coordinates, we can represent SE(3) as follows,



R p
3
SE(3) =
GL(4, R) : R SO(3), p R ,
0 1

with the action on R3 given by the usual matrixvector product when we identify
R3 with the section R3 {1} R4 . In particular, given


R p
g=
SE(3),
0 1
49

and q R3 , we have

g q = Rq + p,

or as a matrixvector product,

  

R p
q
Rq + p
=
.
0 1
1
1
The Lie algebra of SE(3), denoted se(3), is given by



v
3
se(3) =
M4 (R) : so(3), v R ,
0 0
where the attitude (or, angular velocity) matrix : R3 so(3) is given by

0
z y
0
x .
= z
y x
0
The exponential map, exp : se(3) SE(3), is given by

 

v
exp() Av
exp
=
,
0 0
0
1

where
A=I+

1 cos kk
kk

kk sin kk

and exp() is given by the Rodriguez formula,

exp() = I +

5.5
5.5.1

kk3

2 ,

sin kk
1 cos kk 2
+
.
kk
kk2

Basic Mechanical Examples

SE(2)Hovercraft

Configuration manifold is (, x, y) SE(2), given

cos sin
P = sin cos
0
0
50

by matrix

x
y .
1

Kinematic equations of motion in Lie algebra se(2):

0 vx
vx = x,
P = P 0 vy ,
( = ,
vy = y).

0 0 0

Kinetic energy:

1
1
Ek = m(vx2 + vy2 ) + I 2 ,
2
2
where m, I are mass and inertia moment of the hovercraft.
Dynamical equations of motion:
mv x = mvy + u1 ,
mv y = mvx + u2 ,
I = u2 ,

where = h is the torque applied at distance h from the centerofmass, while

u1 , u2 are control inputs.
5.5.2

SO(3)Satellite

Configuration manifold is rotation matrix R SO(3), with associated angular

velocity (attitude) matrix = ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) so(3) R3 given by

0
3 2
so(3) 7 3
0
1 .
2 1
0
Kinematic equation of motion in so(3):

R = R,
Kinetic energy:

1
Ek = T I,
2
where inertia tensor I is given by diagonal matrix,
I = diag{I1 , I2 , I3 }.
Dynamical Euler equations of motion:
I
= I + i ui ,
where is the crossproduct in 3D, i are three external torques and ui = ui (t) are
control inputs.
51

5.5.3

SE(3)Submarine

The motion of a rigid body in incompressible, irrotational and inviscid fluid is defined by the configuration manifold SE(3), given by a pair of rotation matrix and
translation vector, (R, p) SE(3), such that angular velocity (attitude) matrix and
linear velocity vector, (, v) se(3) R6 .
Kinematic equations of motion in se(3):
R = R.

p = Rv,
Kinetic energy (symmetrical):

1
1
Ek = vT Mv + T I,
2
2
where mass and inertia matrices are diagonal (for a neutrally buoyant ellipsoidal
body with uniformly distributed mass),
M = diag{m1 , m2 , m3 },
I = diag{I1 , I2 , I3 }.

Dynamical Kirchhoff equations of motion read:

Mv = Mv ,

I
= I + Mv v.

By including the bodyfixed external forces and torques, fi , i , with input controls
ui = u( t), the dynamical equations become:
Mv = Mv + fi ui ,

I = I + Mv v + i ui .

5.6
5.6.1

NewtonEuler SE(3)Dynamics
SO(3) : Euler Equations of Rigid Rotations

Unforced Euler equations read in vector form

I = ,
and in scalar form

with

I = diag{I1 , I2 , I3 }

I1 1 = (I2 I3 ) 2 3
I2 2 = (I3 I1 ) 3 1 .
I3 3 = (I1 I2 ) 1 2
52

Using rotational kineticenergy Lagrangian

1
1
L() = Ekrot = t I = (I1 21 + I2 22 + I3 23 )
2
2

(t = transpose)

Regarding the angular momentum = L = I = (I1 1 , I2 2 , I3 3 ) as a vector,

we can derive unforced Euler equations:
= as a system of EulerLagrange
Kirchhoff equations
d
L = L .
dt
Forced Euler equations read in vector form

+ =T
and in scalar form

5.6.2

I1 1 + (I3 I2 ) 2 3 = T1
I2 2 + (I1 I3 ) 3 1 = T2
I3 3 + (I2 I1 ) 1 2 = T3

SE(3) : Coupled NewtonEuler Equations

Forced coupled NewtonEuler equations read in vector form

p Mv = F + p ,

with M = diag{m1 , m2 , m3 }

I = T + + p v,

I = diag{I1 , I2 , I3 },

with principal inertia moments given in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) by density

dependent volume integrals
ZZZ
ZZZ
ZZZ
2
2
2
2
I1 =
(z +y )dxdydz, I2 =
(x +y )dxdydz, I3 =
(x2 +y 2 )dxdydz,
In tensor form, the forcedcoupled NewtonEuler equations read
p i Mij v j = Fi + jik pj k ,

i Iij j = Ti + jik j k + jik pj v k ,

where the permutation symbol jik is defined as
jik

+1 if (i, j, k) is (1, 2, 3), (3, 1, 2) or (2, 3, 1),

= 1 if (i, j, k) is (3, 2, 1), (1, 3, 2) or (2, 1, 3),

0
otherwise: i = j or j = k or k = i.
53

In scalar form these equations read

p 1 = F1 m3 v3 2 + m2 v2 3
p 2 = F2 + m3 v3 1 m1 v1 3
p 3 = F3 m2 v2 1 + m1 v1 2

1 = T1 + (m2 m3 )v2 v3 + (I2 I3 ) 2 3

2 = T2 + (m3 m1 )v1 v3 + (I3 I1 ) 1 3
3 = T3 + (m1 m2 )v1 v2 + (I1 I2 ) 1 2
These coupled rigidbody equations can be derived from the NewtonEuler kinetic
energy
1
1
Ek = vt Mv + t I
2
2
or, in tensor form
1
1
E = Mij v i v j + Iij i j .
2
2
Using the KirchhoffLagrangian equations
d
v Ek = v Ek + F
dt
d
Ek = Ek + v Ek v + T,
dt
or, in tensor form
d
i E = jik (vj E) k + Fi ,
dt v
d
i E = jik (j E) k + jik (vj E) v k + Ti
dt
we can derive linear and angular momentum covectors
p = v Ek ,

= Ek

pi = vi E,

i = i E,

or, in tensor form

and in scalar form
p = [p1 , p2 , p3 ] = [m1 v1 , m2 v2 , m2 v3 ]
= [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] = [I1 1 , I2 2 , I3 3 ],

54

with their respective time derivatives, in vector form

d
d
p = v Ek ,
dt
dt

d
d
= Ek
dt
dt

d
d
pi = vi E,
dt
dt

i =

d
d
i = i E,
dt
dt

p =
or, in tensor form
p i =
and in scalar form

p = [p 1 , p 2 , p 3 ] = [m1 v 1 , m2 v 2 , m3 v 3 ]
= [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] = [I1 1 , I2 2 , I3 3 ].
In addition, for the purpose of biomechanical injury prediction/prevention, we
have linear and angular jolts, respectively given in vector form by
=p
F
p p

T=
p v p v,

or, in tensor form13

Fi = pi jik p j k jik pj k ,
Ti =
i jik j k jik j k jik p j v k jik pj v k ,
where the linear and angular jolt covectors are
Fi = M
F
v Mij vj = [F1 , F 2 , F3 ],
Ti = I
T
Iij
j = [T1 , T2 , T3 ],
where
v
= vi = [
v 1 , v2 , v3 ]t ,

=
i = [
1,
2,
3 ]t ,

are linear and angular jerk vectors.

In scalar form, the SE(3)jolt expands as

F 1 = p1 m2 3 v 2 + m3 ( 2 v 3 + v3 2 ) m2 v2 3 ,
F = p2 + m1 3 v 1 m3 1 v 3 m3 v3 1 + m1 v1 3 ,
2
F3 = p3 m1 2 v 1 + m2 1 v 2 v2 1 m1 v1 2 ,

1 (m2 m3 ) (v3 v 2 + v2 v 3 ) (I2 I3 ) ( 3 2 + 2 3 ) ,

T1 =

T =
2 + (m1 m3 ) (v3 v 1 + v1 v 3 ) + (I1 I3 ) ( 3 1 + 1 3 ) ,
2
T3 =
3 (m1 m2 ) (v2 v 1 + v1 v 2 ) (I1 I2 ) ( 2 1 + 1 2 ) .
13

In this paragraph the overdots actually denote the absolute Bianchi (covariant) derivatives, so
that the jolts retain the proper covector character, which would be lost if ordinary time derivatives
are used. However, for simplicity, we stick to the same notation.

55

5.7

Symplectic Group in Hamiltonian Mechanics

Here we givea brief description

of symplectic group (see [4, 8, 9]).

0 I
, with I the n n identity matrix. Now, A L(R2n , R2n )
Let J =
I 0
is called a symplectic matrix if AT J A = J. Let Sp(2n, R) be the set of 2n 2n
symplectic matrices. Taking determinants of the condition AT J A = J gives det A =
1, and so A GL(2n, R). Furthermore, if A, B Sp(2n, R), then (AB)T J(AB) =
B T AT JAB = J. Hence, AB Sp(2n, R), and if AT J A = J, then JA = (AT )1 J =
(A1 )T J, so J = (A 1)T JA1 , or A1 Sp(2n, R). Thus, Sp(2n, R) is a group.
The symplectic Lie group


Sp(2n, R) = A GL(2n, R) : AT J A = J

is a noncompact, connected Lie group of dimension 2n2 + n. Its Lie algebra



sp(2n, R) = A L(R2n , R2n ) : AT J A = J = 0 ,

called the symplectic Lie algebra, consists of the 2n 2n matrices A satisfying

AT J A = 0.
Consider a particle of mass m moving in a potential V (q), where q i = (q 1 , q 2 , q 3 )
3
R . Newtonian second law states that the particle moves along a curve q(t) in R3 in
such a way that m
q i = grad V (q i ). Introduce the 3Dmomentum pi = mq i , and
the energy (Hamiltonian)
3

1 X 2
H(q, p) =
pi + V (q).
2m
i=1

Then
H
q i
H
pi

V
= m
q i = p i , and
q i
1
pi = qi ,
(i = 1, 2, 3),
m

=
=

and hence Newtonian law F = m

q i is equivalent to Hamiltonian equations
qi =

H
,
pi

p i =

H
.
q i

Now, writing z = (q i , pi ),
J grad H(z) =

0 I
I 0


56

H
q i
H
pi

= qi , pi = z,

so the complex Hamiltonian equations read

z = J grad H(z).
Now let f : R3 R3 R3 R3 and write w = f (z). If z(t) satisfies the complex
Hamiltonian equations then w(t) = f (z(t)) satisfies w = AT z,
where AT = [wi /z j ]
is the Jacobian matrix of f . By the chain rule,
w = AT J grad H(z) = AT J A grad H(z(w)).
z

Thus, the equations for w(t) have the form of Hamiltonian equations with energy
K(w) = H(z(w)) iff AT J A = J, that is, iff A is symplectic. A nonlinear transformation f is canonical iff its Jacobian matrix is symplectic. Sp(2n, R) is the linear
invariance group of classical mechanics.

6
6.1

Medical Applications: Prediction of Injuries

General Theory of MusculoSkeletal Injury Mechanics

The prediction and prevention of traumatic brain injury, spinal injury and musculoskeletal injury is a very important aspect of preventive medical science. Recently,
in a series of papers [28, 29, 30], we have proposed a new coupled loading-rate
hypothesis as a unique cause of all above injuries. This new hypothesis states that
the unique cause of brain, spinal and musculo-skeletal injuries is a Euclidean Jolt,
which is an impulsive loading that strikes any part of the human body (head, spine
or any bone/joint) in several coupled degrees-of-freedom simultaneously. It never
goes in a single direction only. Also, it is never a static force. It is always an
impulsive translational and/or rotational force coupled to some mass eccentricity.
This is, in a nutshell, our universal Jolt theory of all mechanical injuries.
To show this, based on the previously defined covariant force law, we have firstly
formulated the fully coupled NewtonEuler dynamics of:
1. Brains micro-motions within the cerebrospinal fluid inside the cranial cavity;
2. Any local inter-vertebral motions along the spine; and
3. Any local joint motions in the human musculo-skeletal system.
Then, from it, we have defined the essential concept of Euclidean Jolt, which
is the main cause of all mechanical injuries. The Euclidean Jolt has two main
components:
1. Sudden motion, caused either by an accidental impact or slightly distorted
human movement; and

57

Figure 5: Human brain and its SE(3)group of microscopic three-dimensional motions within the cerebrospinal fluid inside the cranial cavity.
2. Unnatural mass distribution of the human body (possibly with some added
masses), which causes some mass eccentricity from the natural physiological body
state.
What does this all mean? We will try to explain it in plain English. As we
live in a 3D space, one could think that motion of any part of the human body, either caused by an accidental impact or by voluntary human movement, just obeys
classical mechanics in 6 degrees-of-freedom: three translations and three rotations.
However, these 6 degrees-of-freedom are not independent motions as it is suggested
by the standard term degrees-of-freedom. In reality, these six motions of any
body in space are coupled. Firstly, three rotations are coupled in the so-called rotation group (or matrix, or quaternion). Secondly, three translations are coupled
with the rotation group to give the full Euclidean group of rigid body motions in
space. A simple way to see this is to observe someone throwing an object in the
air or hitting a tennis ball: how far and where it will fly depends not only on the
standard projectile mechanics, but also on its local spin around all three axes
simultaneously. Every golf and tennis player knows this simple fact. Once the spin
is properly defined we have a fully coupled NewtonEuler dynamics to start with.

58

Figure 6: Human body representation in terms of SE(3)/SE(2)-groups of rigid-body

motion, with the vertebral column represented as a chain of 26 flexibly-coupled
SE(3)-groups.
The covariant force law for any biodynamical system (which we introduced earlier
in our biodynamics books and papers, see our references in the cited papers above)
goes one step beyond the NewtonEuler dynamics. It states:
Euclidean Force covector field

Body mass distribution Euclidean Acceleration vector field

This is a nontrivial biomechanical generalization of the fundamental Newtons
definition of the force acting on a single particle. Unlike classical engineering mechanics of multi-body systems, this fundamental law of biomechanics proposes that
forces acting on a multi-body system and causing its motions are fundamentally different physical quantities from the resulting accelerations. In simple words, forces
are massive quantities while accelerations are massless quantities. More precisely,
the acceleration vector field includes all linear and angular accelerations of individual
body segments. When we couple them all with the total bodys mass-distribution
matrix of all body segments (including all masses and inertia moments), we get the
force co-vector field, comprising all the forces and torques acting on the individual
body segments. In this way, we have defined the 6-dimensional Euclidean force for
an arbitrary biomechanical system.
Now, for prediction of injuries, we need to take the rate-of-change (or derivative,
59

Figure 7: Schematic latero-frontal view of the left knee joint. Although designed
to perform mainly flexion/extension (strictly in the sagittal plane) with some restricted medial/lateral rotation in the semi-flexed position, it is clear that the knee
joint really has at least six-degrees-of-freedom, including three micro-translations.
The injury actually occurs when some of these microscopic translations become
macroscopic, which normally happens only after an external jolt.
with respect to time) of the Euclidean biomechanical force defined above. In this way,
we get the Euclidean Jolt, which is the sudden change (in time) of the 6-dimensional
Euclidean force:
Euclidean Jolt covector field

Body mass distribution Euclidean Jerk vector field

And again, it consists of two components: (i) massless linear and angular jerks
(of all included body segments), and (ii) their mass distribution. For the sake of simplicity, we can say that the mass distribution matrix includes all involved segmental
masses and inertia moments, as well as eccentricities or pathological leverages
from the normal physiological state.
Therefore, the unique cause of all brain, spine and musculo-skeletal injuries has
two components:
1. Coupled linear and angular jerks; and
2. Mass distribution with eccentricities.

60

In other words, there are no injuries in static conditions without any mass
eccentricities; all injuries are caused by mutually coupled linear and angular jerks, which are also coupled with the involved human mass distribution.
The Euclidean Jolt causes two forms of discontinuous brain, spine or musculoskeletal injury:
1. Mild rotational disclinations; and
2. Severe translational dislocations (or, fractures).
In the cited papers above, we have developed the soft-body dynamics of biomechanical disclinations and dislocations, caused by the Euclidean Jolt, using the
Cosserat multipolar viscoelastic continuum model.
Implications of the new universal theory are various, as follows.
A. The research in traumatic brain injury (TBI, see Figure 5) has so far identified the rotation of the brain-stem as the main cause of the TBI due to various
crashes/impacts. The contribution of our universal Jolt theory to the TBI research
is the following:
1. Rigorously defined this brain rotation as a mechanical disclination of the
brain-stem tissue modelled by the Cosserat multipolar soft-body model;
2. Showing that brain rotation is never uni-axial but always three-axial;
3. Showing that brain rotation is always coupled with translational dislocations. This is a straightforward consequence of our universal Jolt theory.
These apparently obvious facts are actually radically new: we cannot separately
analyze rapid brains rotations from translations, because they are in reality always
coupled.
One practical application of the brain Jolt theory is in design of helmets. Briefly,
a hard helmet saves the skull but not the brain; alternatively, a soft helmet protects the brain from the collision jolt but does not protect the skull. A good helmet
is both hard and soft. A proper helmet would need to have both a hard external
shell (to protect the skull) and a soft internal part (that will dissipate the energy
from the collision jolt by its own destruction, in the same way as a car saves its
passengers from the collision jolt by its own destruction).
Similarly, in designing safer car air-bags, the two critical points will be (i) their
61

placement within the car, and (ii) their soft-hard characteristics, similar to the
helmet characteristics described above.
B. In case of spinal injury (see Figure 6), the contribution of our universal Jolt
theory is the following:
1. The spinal injury is always localized at the certain vertebral or inter-vertebral
point;
2. In case of severe translational injuries (vertebral fractures or discus herniae)
they can be identified using X-ray or other medical imaging scans; in case of microscopic rotational injuries (causing the back-pain syndrome) they cannot be identified
using current medical imaging scans;
3. There is no spinal injury without one of the following two causes:
a. Impulsive rotational + translational loading caused by either fast human
movements or various crashes/impacts; and/or
b. Static eccentricity from the normal physiological spinal form, caused by
external loading;
c. Any spinal injury is caused by a combination of the two points above:
impulsive rotational + translational loading and static eccentricity.
This is a straightforward consequence of our universal Jolt theory. We cannot
separately analyze translational and rotational spinal injuries. Also, there are no
static injuries without eccentricity. Indian women have for centuries carried bulky
loads on their heads without any spinal injuries; they just prevented any load eccentricities and any jerks in their motion.
The currently used Principal loading hypothesis that describes spinal injuries
in terms of spinal tension, compression, bending, and shear, covers only a small
subset of all spinal injuries covered by our universal Jolt theory. To prevent spinal
injuries we need to develop spinal jolt awareness: ability to control all possible impulsive spinal loadings as well as static eccentricities.
C. In case of general musculo-skeletal injury (see Figure 7 for the particular case
of knee injury), the contribution of our universal Jolt theory is the following:
1. The injury is always localized at the certain joint or bone and caused by an
impulsive loading, which hits this particular joint/bone in several coupled degreesof-freedom simultaneously;
2. Injury happens when most of the body mass is hanging on that joint; for
example, in case of a knee injury, when most of the body mass is on one leg with
62

a semi-flexed knee and then, caused by some external shock, the knee suddenly
jerks (this can happen in running, skiing, and ball games, as well as various
crashes/impacts); or, in case of shoulder injury, when most of the body mass is
hanging on one arm and then it suddenly jerks.
To prevent these injuries we need to develop musculo-skeletal jolt awareness. For
example, never overload a flexed knee and avoid any kind of uncontrolled motions
(like slipping) or collisions with external objects.

6.2
6.2.1

Analytical Mechanics of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

The SE(3)jolt: the cause of TBI

In this subsection we give a brief on TBI mechanics. For more details and references,
see [28].
In the language of modern dynamics, the microscopic motion of human brain
within the skull is governed by the Euclidean SE(3)group of 3D motions (see next
subsection). Within brains SE(3)group we have both SE(3)kinematics (consisting
of SE(3)velocity and its two time derivatives: SE(3)acceleration and SE(3)jerk)
and SE(3)dynamics (consisting of SE(3)momentum and its two time derivatives:
SE(3)force and SE(3)jolt), which is brains kinematics brains massinertia
distribution.
Informally, the external SE(3)jolt14 is a sharp and sudden change in the SE(3)
force acting on brains massinertia distribution (given by brains mass and inertia
matrices). That is, a deltachange in a 3D forcevector coupled to a 3D torque
vector, striking the headshell with the brain immersed into the cerebrospinal fluid.
In other words, the SE(3)jolt is a sudden, sharp and discontinues shock in all
6 coupled dimensions of brains continuous micromotion within the cerebrospinal
fluid (Figure 5), namely within the three Cartesian (x, y, z)translations and the
three corresponding Euler angles around the Cartesian axes: roll, pitch and yaw.
If the SE(3)jolt produces a mild shock to the brain (e.g., strong head shake), it
causes mild TBI, with temporary disabled associated sensory-motor and/or cognitive
functions and affecting respiration and movement. If the SE(3)jolt produces a hard
14

The mechanical SE(3)jolt concept is based on the mathematical concept of higherorder tangency (rigorously defined in terms of jet bundles of the heads configuration manifold), as follows:
When something hits the human head, or the head hits some external body, we have a collision.
This is naturally described by the SE(3)momentum, which is a nonlinear coupling of 3 linear Newtonian momenta with 3 angular Eulerian momenta. The tangent to the SE(3)momentum, defined
by the (absolute) time derivative, is the SE(3)force. The second-order tangency is given by the
SE(3)jolt, which is the tangent to the SE(3)force, also defined by the time derivative.

63

shock (hitting the head with external mass), it causes severe TBI, with the total
loss of gesture, speech and movement.
The SE(3)jolt is the absolute timederivative of the covariant force 1form (or,
co-vector field). The fundamental law of biomechanics is the covariant force law :
Force co-vector field = Mass distribution Acceleration vectorfield,
which is formally written (using the Einstein summation convention, with indices
labelling the three Cartesian translations and the three corresponding Euler angles):
F = m a ,

(, = 1, ..., 6)

where F denotes the 6 covariant components of the external pushing SE(3)force

co-vector field, m represents the 66 covariant components of brains inertia
metric tensor, while a corresponds to the 6 contravariant components of brains
internal SE(3)acceleration vector-field.
D
() of the covariant
Now, the covariant (absolute, Bianchi) time-derivative dt
SE(3)force F defines the corresponding external striking SE(3)jolt co-vector
field:


D
D
(6)
(F ) = m (a ) = m a + a a ,
dt
dt
D
(a ) denotes the 6 contravariant components of brains internal SE(3)jerk
where dt
vector-field and overdot () denotes the time derivative. are the Christoffels
symbols of the LeviCivita connection for the SE(3)group, which are zero in case
of pure Cartesian translations and nonzero in case of rotations as well as in the
fullcoupling of translations and rotations.
In the following, we elaborate on the SE(3)jolt concept (using vector and tensor
methods) and its biophysical TBI consequences in the form of brains dislocations
and disclinations.

6.2.2

SE(3)group of brains micromotions within the CSF

The brain and the CSF together exhibit periodic microscopic translational and rotational motion in a pulsatile fashion to and from the cranial cavity, in the frequency range of normal heart rate (with associated periodic squeezing of brains
ventricles). This micromotion is mathematically defined by the Euclidean (gauge)
SE(3)group.
In other words, the gauge SE(3)group of Euclidean micro-motions of the brain
immersedin the cerebrospinal
fluid within the cranial cavity, contains matrices of

the form

R b
0 1

, where b is brains 3D micro-translation vector and R is brains

3D rotation matrix, given by the product R = R R R of brains three Eulerian

64

micro-rotations, roll = R , pitch = R , yaw = R , performed respectively about

the xaxis by an angle , about the yaxis by an angle , and about the zaxis
by an angle ,

1
0
R = 0 cos
0 sin

0
cos
sin , R =
0
cos
sin

0 sin
cos
1
0 , R = sin
0 cos
0

sin
cos
0

0
0 .
1

Therefore, brains natural SE(3)dynamics within the cerebrospinal fluid is

given by the coupling of Newtonian (translational) and Eulerian (rotational) equations of micro-motion.
6.2.3

Brains natural SE(3)dynamics

To support our coupled loadingrate hypothesis, we formulate the coupled Newton

Euler dynamics of brains micro-motions within the sculls SE(3)group of motions.
The forced NewtonEuler equations read in vector (boldface) form
Newton :
Euler :

p Mv = F + p ,

(7)

I
= T + + p v,

where denotes the vector cross product,15

M Mij = diag{m1 , m2 , m3 }

and

I Iij = diag{I1 , I2 , I3 },

(i, j = 1, 2, 3)

are brains (diagonal) mass and inertia matrices,16 defining brains massinertia
distribution, with principal inertia moments given in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z)
by volume integrals
ZZZ
ZZZ
ZZZ
2
2
2
2
I1 =
(z +y )dxdydz, I2 =
(x +z )dxdydz, I3 =
(x2 +y 2 )dxdydz,
15

Recall that the cross product u v of two vectors u and v equals u v = uv sin n, where
is the angle between u and v, while n is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of u and v such
that u and v form a right-handed system.
16
In reality, mass and inertia matrices (M, I) are not diagonal but rather full 3 3 positive
definite symmetric matrices with coupled mass and inertiaproducts. Even more realistic, fully
coupled massinertial properties of a brain immersed in (incompressible, irrotational and inviscid)
cerebrospinal fluid are defined by the single non-diagonal 6 6 positivedefinite symmetric mass
inertia matrix MSE(3) , the so-called material metric tensor of the SE(3)group, which has all
nonzero massinertia coupling products. In other words, the 6 6 matrix MSE(3) contains: (i)
brains own mass plus the added mass matrix associated with the fluid, (ii) brains own inertia plus
the added inertia matrix associated with the potential flow of the fluid, and (iii) all the coupling
terms between linear and angular momenta. However, for simplicity, in this paper we shall consider
only the simple case of two separate diagonal 3 3 matrices (M, I).

65

dependent on brains density = (x, y, z),

v v i = [v1 , v2 , v3 ]t

i = [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]t

and

(where [ ]t denotes the vector transpose) are brains linear and angular velocity
vectors17 (that is, column vectors),
F Fi = [F1 , F2 , F3 ]

and

T Ti = [T1 , T2 , T3 ]

are gravitational and other external force and torque co-vectors (that is, row vectors)
acting on the brain within the scull,
p pi Mv = [p1 , p2 , p3 ] = [m1 v1 , m2 v2 , m2 v2 ]

and

i I = [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] = [I1 1 , I2 2 , I3 3 ]

are brains linear and angular momentum co-vectors.

In tensor form, the forced NewtonEuler equations (7) read
p i Mij v j = Fi + jik pj k ,
j

i Iij = Ti +

jik j k

(i, j, k = 1, 2, 3)
jik pj v k ,

where the permutation symbol jik is defined as

jik

+1 if (i, j, k) is (1, 2, 3), (3, 1, 2) or (2, 3, 1),

= 1 if (i, j, k) is (3, 2, 1), (1, 3, 2) or (2, 1, 3),

0
otherwise: i = j or j = k or k = i.

In scalar form, the forced NewtonEuler equations (7) expand as

p 1 = F1 m3 v3 2 + m2 v2 3
p = F2 + m3 v3 1 m1 v1 3 ,
Newton :
2
p 3 = F3 m2 v2 1 + m1 v1 2

1 = T1 + (m2 m3 )v2 v3 + (I2 I3 ) 2 3

= T2 + (m3 m1 )v1 v3 + (I3 I1 ) 1 3 ,
Euler :
2
3 = T3 + (m1 m2 )v1 v2 + (I1 I2 ) 1 2

(8)

showing brains individual mass and inertia couplings.

17

In reality, is a 3 3 attitude matrix. However, for simplicity, we will stick to the (mostly)
symmetrical translationrotation vector form.

66

Equations (7)(8) can be derived from the translational + rotational kinetic

energy of the brain18
1
1
Ek = vt Mv + t I,
(9)
2
2
or, in tensor form
1
1
E = Mij v i v j + Iij i j .
2
2
For this we use the KirchhoffLagrangian equations:
d
v Ek = v Ek + F,
dt
d
Ek = Ek + v Ek v + T,
dt
where v Ek =

Ek
v ,

Ek =

Ek
;

(10)

in tensor form these equations read

d
i E = jik (vj E) k + Fi ,
dt v
d
i E = jik ( j E) k + jik (vj E) v k + Ti .
dt
Using (9)(10), brains linear and angular momentum co-vectors are defined as
p = v Ek ,

= Ek ,

pi = vi E,

i = i E,

or, in tensor form

with their corresponding time derivatives, in vector form
d
d
p = v E,
dt
dt

d
d
pi = vi E,
dt
dt

i =

p =

d
d
= E,
dt
dt

or, in tensor form

p i =
18

d
d
i = i E,
dt
dt

In a fullycoupled NewtonEuler brain dynamics, instead of equation (9) we would have brains
kinetic energy defined by the inner product:
"
!
!#
1
p
p 
Ek =
.
MSE(3)
2

67

or, in scalar form

p = [p 1 , p2 , p 3 ] = [m1 v 1 , m2 v 2 , m3 v 3 ],

= [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] = [I1 1 , I2 2 , I3 3 ].

While brains healthy SE(3)dynamics within the cerebrospinal fluid is given

by the coupled NewtonEuler microdynamics, the TBI is actually caused by the
sharp and discontinuous change in this natural SE(3) micro-dynamics, in the form
of the SE(3)jolt, causing brains discontinuous deformations.
6.2.4

Brains traumatic dynamics: the SE(3)jolt

The SE(3)jolt, the actual cause of the TBI (in the form of the brains plastic
deformations), is defined as a coupled Newton+Euler jolt; in (co)vector form the
SE(3)jolt reads19

=p
Newton jolt : F
p p
,
SE(3) jolt :

Euler jolt : T =

p v p v,

where the linear and angular jolt co-vectors are

M
F
v = [F1 , F2 , F3 ],

I
T
= [T1 , T2 , T3 ],

where
v
= [
v1 , v2 , v3 ]t ,

= [
1,
2,
3 ]t ,

are linear and angular jerk vectors.

In tensor form, the SE(3)jolt reads20
Fi = pi jik p j k jik pj k ,
(i, j, k = 1, 2, 3)
Ti =
i jik j k jik j k jik p j v k jik pj v k ,
in which the linear and angular jolt covectors are defined as
Fi = M
F
v Mij vj = [F1 , F 2 , F3 ],
Ti = I
T
Iij
j = [T1 , T2 , T3 ],
where v
= vi , and
=
i are linear and angular jerk vectors.
19

Note that the derivative of the crossproduct of two vectors follows the standard calculus
d
(u v) = u v + u v.

productrule: dt
20
In this paragraph the overdots actually denote the absolute Bianchi (covariant) time-derivative
(6), so that the jolts retain the proper covector character, which would be lost if ordinary time
derivatives are used. However, for the sake of simplicity and wider readability, we stick to the same
overdot notation.

68

In scalar form, the SE(3)jolt expands as

F1 = p1 m2 3 v 2 + m3 (2 v 3 + v3 2 ) m2 v2 3 ,
Newton jolt :
F = p2 + m1 3 v 1 m3 1 v 3 m3 v3 1 + m1 v1 3 ,
2
F3 = p3 m1 2 v 1 + m2 1 v 2 v2 1 m1 v1 2 ,

1 (m2 m3 ) (v3 v 2 + v2 v 3 ) (I2 I3 ) ( 3 2 + 2 3 ) ,

T1 =
Euler jolt :
T2 =
2 + (m1 m3 ) (v3 v 1 + v1 v 3 ) + (I1 I3 ) ( 3 1 + 1 3 ) ,

T3 =
3 (m1 m2 ) (v2 v 1 + v1 v 2 ) (I1 I2 ) ( 2 1 + 1 2 ) .

We remark here that the linear and angular momenta (p, ), forces (F, T) and
T)
are co-vectors (row vectors), while the linear and angular velocities
jolts (F,
(v, ), accelerations (v,
)
and jerks (
v,
) are vectors (column vectors). This
bio-physically means that the jerk vector should not be confused with the jolt covector. For example, the jerk means shaking the heads own massinertia matrices
(mainly in the atlantooccipital and atlantoaxial joints), while the joltmeans actually hitting the head with some external massinertia matrices included in the
hitting SE(3)jolt, or hitting some external static/massive body with the head
(e.g., the ground gravitational effect, or the wall inertial effect). Consequently,
the mass-less jerk vector represents a (translational+rotational) non-collision effect
that can cause only weaker brain injuries, while the inertial jolt co-vector represents
a (translational+rotational) collision effect that can cause hard brain injuries.
6.2.5

Brains dislocations and disclinations caused by the SE(3)jolt

Recall from introduction that for mild TBI, the best injury predictor is considered
to be the product of brains strain and strain rate, which is the standard isotropic
viscoelastic continuum concept. To improve this standard concept, in this subsection, we consider human brain as a 3D anisotropic multipolar Cosserat viscoelastic
continuum, exhibiting coupledstressstrain elastic properties. This non-standard
continuum model is suitable for analyzing plastic (irreversible) deformations and
fracture mechanics in multi-layered materials with microstructure (in which slips
and bending of layers introduces additional degrees of freedom, non-existent in the
standard continuum models.
T)
causes two types of brains rapid discontinuous deformaThe SE(3)jolt (F,
tions:
can cause micro-translational dislocations, or discontinuities
1. The Newton jolt F
in the Cosserat translations;
can cause micro-rotational disclinations, or discontinuities in
2. The Euler jolt T
the Cosserat rotations.
69

To precisely define brains dislocations and disclinations, caused by the SE(3)jolt

T),
we first define the coordinate co-frame, i.e., the set of basis 1forms {dxi },
(F,
given in local coordinates xi = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x, y, z), attached to brains centerof-mass. Then, in the coordinate co-frame {dxi } we introduce the following set of
brains plasticdeformationrelated SE(3)based differential pforms21 :
the dislocation current 1form, J = Ji dxi ;
the dislocation density 2form, = 21 ij dxi dxj ;
the disclination current 2form, S = 21 Sij dxi dxj ; and
the disclination density 3form, Q = 3!1 Qijk dxi dxj dxk ,
where denotes the exterior wedgeproduct. These four SE(3)based differential forms satisfy the following set of continuity equations:

= dJ S,
= dS,
Q

(11)
(12)

d = Q,

(13)

dQ = 0,

(14)

where d denotes the exterior derivative.

In components, the simplest, fourth equation (14), representing the Bianchi iden21

Differential pforms are totally skew-symmetric covariant tensors, defined using the exterior
wedgeproduct and exterior derivative. The proper definition of exterior derivative d for a pform
on a smooth manifold M , includes the Poincare lemma: d(d) = 0, and validates the general
Stokes formula
Z
Z
=

d,

where M is a pdimensional manifold with a boundary and M is its (p1)dimensional boundary,

while the integrals have appropriate dimensions.
A pform is called closed if its exterior derivative is equal to zero,
d = 0.

From this condition one can see that the closed form (the kernel of the exterior derivative operator
d) is conserved quantity. Therefore, closed pforms possess certain invariant properties, physically
corresponding to the conservation laws.
A pform that is an exterior derivative of some (p 1)form ,
= d,
is called exact (the image of the exterior derivative operator d). By Poincare lemma, exact forms
prove to be closed automatically,
d = d(d) = 0.
This lemma is the foundation of the de Rham cohomology theory

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tity, can be rewritten as

dQ = l Q[ijk] dxl dxi dxj dxk = 0,
where i /xi , while [ij...] denotes the skew-symmetric part of ij....
Similarly, the third equation (13) in components reads
1
Qijk dxi dxj dxk = k [ij] dxk dxi dxj ,
3!
Qijk = 6k [ij] .

or

The second equation (12) in components reads

1
Qijk dxi dxj dxk = k S[ij] dxk dxi dxj ,
3!
Q ijk = 6k S[ij] .

or

Finally, the first equation (11) in components reads

1
ij dxi dxj
2
ij

1
= (j Ji Sij ) dxi dxj ,
2
= 2j Ji Sij .

or

In words, we have:
The 2form equation (11) defines the time derivative
= 12 ij dxi dxj of the
dislocation density as the (negative) sum of the disclination current S and
the curl of the dislocation current J.
= 1 Q ijk dxi dxj
The 3form equation (12) states that the time derivative Q
3!
dxk of the disclination density Q is the (negative) divergence of the disclination
current S.
The 3form equation (13) defines the disclination density Q as the divergence
of the dislocation density , that is, Q is the exact 3form.
The Bianchi identity (14) follows from equation (13) by Poincare lemma and
states that the disclination density Q is conserved quantity, that is, Q is the
closed 3form. Also, every 4form in 3D space is zero.
From these equations, we can derive two important conclusions:

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1. Being the derivatives of the dislocations, brains disclinations are higherorder

tensors, and thus more complex quantities, which means that they present a
higher risk for the severe TBI than dislocations a fact which is supported
by the literature (see review of existing TBImodels given in Introduction of
[28]).
2. Brains dislocations and disclinations are mutually coupled by the underlaying
SE(3)group, which means that we cannot separately analyze translational
and rotational TBIs a fact which is not supported by the literature.
For more medical details and references, see [28].

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http://www.springerlink.com/content/p27023577564202h/?p=4351a9d0d76a4fd4b45d6720dad056f3&pi=
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http://www.worldscinet.com/brl/04/0403/S1793048009001022.html

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