Wireless

Communi ation

Ananth Ravindran
Assistant Professor
 UNIT I
SERVICES AND TECHNICAL CHALLENGES

Types of Services, Requirements for the

services, Multipath propagation, Spectrum
Limitations, Noise and Interference limited
systems, Principles of Cellular networks, Multiple
Access Schemes.
 Types of services
1. Broadcast
2. Paging
3. Cellular Telephony
4. Trunking Radio
5. Cordless Telephony
6. Wireless Local Area Networks
7. Personal Area Networks
8. Fixed Wireless Access
9. Ad hoc Networks and Sensor Networks
10. Satellite Cellular Communications

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 Broadcast
The properties of broadcast are

The information is unidirectional.

The transmitted information is the same for all users.

The information is transmitted continuously.

In many cases, multiple transmitters send the same

information

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 Paging
Their properties are

Paging systems are also unidirectional wireless

communications systems

Normally a "call" (message) can only be initiated by the call

center, not by the user.

The information is intended and received by a single user.

The amount of transmitted information is very small.

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 Cellular Telephony
The information is bidirectional
The information is user specific
Large number of users can be accommodated
More amount of data can be transmitted
Key words- Cell, Handoff & Frequency reuse

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 Trunking Radio
In tunking radio systems there is no connection
between the wireless system and the PSTN. (e.g)
Police Wireless, Call Taxi
This facilitates closed user calls
Multiple users can share the same channel
The range of the network can be extended by
using each Mobile Station as relay station
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 Cordless Telephony
The cordless telephone can communicate with only a single
base station
Cordless is a local device, when a call is coming in from the
PSTN, there is no need to find out the location of the device.
No handoff is required between different BSs. Since it has
only one base station
A user has one BS so there is no need for frequency planning.
It is free of cost except for the hardware.

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 Wireless Local Area Network

A wireless local area network (WLAN) links

two or more devices using some wireless
distribution method
It usually provides a connection through an
access point to the wider internet
e.g. WiFi
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 Personal Area Networks
When the coverage area of WLANs becomes smaller
then it is called Personal Area Networks (PANs)

(e.g) Bluetooth

Networks for even smaller distances are called Body

Area Networks (BANs)

(e.g., pacemakers).

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 Fixed Wireless Access

In fixed wireless there is no mobility of the

user devices

BS always serves multiple users

It covers more area (between 100m and

several tens of kilometers)

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 Ad hoc Networks and Sensor
Networks
This is an infrastructure less network (i.e) It does not
have any central server
Each node operates not only as a host but also as a
router
An ad hoc network has a multi-hop wireless
connectivity and is without any definite network
topology.
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 Ad hoc Networks and Sensor
Networks

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 Satellite Cellular Communications

In this the satellites will act as Base Station.

The distance between the BS and the MS is much
larger
So the cell size will be more than 100km.
It has good coverage but only less number of users
can be accommodated.
Also the installation cost is very high, so this service
is used for emergency purposes.

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 Requirements
Data Rate
Range and Number of Users
Mobility
Energy Consumption
Use of Spectrum
Direction of Transmission
Service Quality

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 Data Rate
The data rates of the system will have a major role in the
performance of the system.

Not all the services require similar data rates.

Sensor networks -1 kbit/s.

Speech communications - 5 and 64 kbit/s

Personal Area Networks -100 Mbit/s

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 Range and Number of Users
Range refers the distance between one transmitter and
receiver.
The coverage area of a system can be increased by combining
more number of base station into one big network.
For services like Cellular Telephones the number of users will
be more. So our system has to be flexible enough to
accommodate all.

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Service Range Users

Body Area Networks ~1 m 1

Personal Area Networks ~10 m 1

WLANs ~100m ~10

Cellular systems Microcells 500m More

Macrocells 10 -30 km

Fixed wireless access 100m several km More

Satellite systems Large (even the size of a Limited

country)

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 Mobility

The ability to move around while

communicating is one of the main features of
wireless communication for the user.

Not all the services require movement of the

user.

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Various types.

Fixed wireless devices these are planted once and they

communicate with their BS, or with each other from the
same location. The idea is to prevent physical cabling

Nomadic devices - are placed at a certain location for a

limited duration of time and then moved to a different
location
(e.g) laptop

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 Low mobility devices - devices are operated at
pedestrian speeds.
e.g cordless phones
High mobility devices - Cellphones operated
by people in moving vehicles (about 30 to
150km/h)
Extremely high mobility - high-speed trains
and planes (300 to 1000 km/h)

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 Energy Consumption

Energy consumption is a critical aspect for

wireless devices

Most wireless devices use batteries.

In order to increase the lifespan of the devices

energy has to used efficiently.

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 Use of Spectrum
The spectrum available for wireless communication
is very limited.
With this it is difficult to cover entire area
The frequency reuse concept was a major
breakthrough in solving this problem.
Each base station is allocated a portion of the total
number of channels available to the entire system.
Neighboring base stations are assigned different
groups of channels

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 Direction of Transmission

Simplex -

Semi-duplex-

Full-duplex-

Asymmetric duplex -data transmission in one

direction is higher than in the other direction

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 Service Quality
The main indicator for service quality is speech quality for
speech services and file transfer speed for data services
For voice communications, the delay(latency) between the time
when one person speaks and the other hears the message
must not be larger than about 100 ms.
Latency is permissible for video streaming.
But the sequence of data has to be maintained.
For some applications even a small latency is not entertained -
e.g., for industrial control applications, security and safety
monitoring, etc.
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 Principles of
Cellular
Networks

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 Principles of Cellular networks
Bands of operation
Structure
Operation
Frequency Planning
Handoff
Interference
Improving Coverage and Capacity

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 RADIO WAVES

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 GSM Frequency Usage
India
GSM 900 MHz ( 890- 915 & 935-960)
GSM 1800 (1710- 1785 & 18051880)

United States

GSM 1900 (18501910 &19301990)

GSM 850 (824849 & 869894)
GSM 1900/850

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 GSM Bands

Uplink Downlink Channel

System Band
(MHz ) (MHz) Number

GSM-850 850 824849 869894 128251

GSM-900 900 890915 935960 1124

GSM-1800 1800 17101785 18051880 512885

GSM-1900 1900 18501910 19301990 512810

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 Choosing Cell hape

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 Cell
Coverage area of a single base station

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 Choosing Cell Shape -
Circle

In a circle the center is always equidistant from any side

But this design will leave lot of uncovered area & there wont be
better connectivity

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 This is another way of representing circles.
But in this arrangement the circles overlap each other.
This results in wastage of radio energy, hence this design is also
neglected

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 Squares & Rectangles

Center of the square is equidistant only along the axis. The distance is
maximum at the diagonals and gradually decreasing towards the axis.
Similarly the center of the rectangle is not equidistant from all parts.
Hence there will be uneven spread of energy.

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 Any solution ?

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 A regular hexagon has all sides of the same length.
The center of hexagon is approximately equal to all sides.
Hexagons fit together without any gaps
Hence theoretically the shape of a CELL is HEXAGON.

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 CELLULAR SYSTEM- MODEL

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 Mobile stations
Mobile stations may be handheld personal units (portables) or
installed in vehicles (mobiles). The mobile station contains a
transceiver, an antenna, and control circuitry.
Base Station
A fixed station in a mobile radio system used for radio communication
with mobile stations. Base stations are located at the center or on the
edge of a coverage region and consist of radio channels and
transmitter and receiver antennas mounted on a tower
Radio channel
Radio channel used for transmission of information from the mobile to
base station & vice-versa

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 Forward Channel
Radio channel used for transmission of information from the base
station to the mobile station.
Reverse Channel
Radio channel used for transmission of information from the mobile
station to the base station.
Control Channel
Radio channels used for transmission of call setup, call request, call
initiation, and other beacon or control purposes.
Voice channel
Channels used for transmission of voice data. For a single voice
communication a pair of voice channel is required.

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 Mobile Switching Center
Switching center coordinates the routing of calls in a large
service area.
In a cellular radio system, the MSC connects the base stations
and the mobiles to the PSTN.
An MSC is also called a mobile telephone switching office
(MTSO).
A typical MSC handles 100,000 cellular subscribers and 5,000
simultaneous conversations at a time, and accommodates all
billing and system maintenance functions.
In large cities several MSCs are used by a single carrier.
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 Roamer

A mobile station which operates in a service area (market)

other than that from which service has been subscribed.

Handoff

The process of transferring an active mobile station from

one channel or base station to another

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 Channels
Forward voice channels (FVC)
The channels used for voice transmission from the base station
to mobiles

Reverse voice channels (RVC)

channels used for voice transmission from mobiles to the base
station

Forward Control Channels (FCC)

Reverse Control Channels (RCC)

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 Steps In Making A Call

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 When a cellular phone is turned on it first scans the forward
control channels to determine the one with the strongest
signal.

Once the strongest signal is found the Mobile will hold on to

that base station until the signal drops below a usable level.
Then again scans the control channels in search of the
strongest base station signal.

5% of the spectrum is used as control channel.

Rest 95% are dedicated to voice and data traffic for the users

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 Making A Call

When we make a call, a call initiation request is sent on the

reverse control channel. With this request the mobile unit

transmits its telephone number (MIN) or SIM , electronic serial

number (ESN), and the telephone number of the called person.

The cell base station receives this data and sends it to the MSC.

The MSC validates the request, makes connection to the called

party through the PSTN, and instructs the base station and

mobile user to move to an unused forward and reverse voice

channel pair to allow the conversation to begin.

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 Receiving A call
When a call request is made to the MSC, it dispatches the
request to all base stations in the cellular system.

The subscriber's telephone number is then broadcast as a paging

message over all of the forward control channels throughout the
cellular system

The mobile receives the paging message through the base

station, and responds by acknowledging through its reverse
control channel

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 Then the MSC instructs the base station to allocate an unused
voice channel within the cell.

The base station instructs the mobile to change frequencies to

an unused forward and reverse voice channel pair.

Then an alert is transmitted over the forward voice channel to

instruct the mobile telephone to ring so that the user can
communicate
All of these occur within a few seconds and are not noticeable
by the user.

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 TIMING DIAGRAM MOBILE LANDLINE

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 TIMING DIAGRAM - LANDLINE TO MOBILE

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 FREQUENCY REUSE

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 GSM 900 has 25MHz for voice communication

Width of each channel is 200KHz

So GSM 900 has 124 channels.

With that to cover the entire area we need antennas capable

of transmitting for hundreds of miles.

Such an antenna is nearly impossible.

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 Frequency Reuse
Frequency Reuse is the technique used to cover the entire
area with the limited spectrum.

The total available channels will be divided into small

groups(Clusters) and will be provided to the base stations.

It is assigned such a way to prevent any interference.

Adjacent base stations are assigned completely different

channels than neighboring cells

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 The splitting up of channels is not random

If N is the no of cells then it has to satisfy

N = i 2 + ij +j2
i,j are non zero integers

Clusters are group of cells which share the entire

spectrum

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 Illustration of 7-cell reuse concept

Cluster

Boundary

Cells with the same letter use the same set of frequencies
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 19- Cell Cluster

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 Handoff

Process of transferring a moving active user

from one base station to another without
disrupting the call.

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 Handoff Strategies
1. Ist generation handoff
2. MAHO (Mobile Assisted HandOff)
3. Inter system handoff
4. Guard channel concept
5. Queuing
6. Umbrella approach
7. Soft and hard handoff
8. Cell dragging.
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Ist generation handoff-
In this almost all the work were carried out by
MSC with the help of Base Station.
Using the Locator Receiver the MSC will measure
the signal strength of the moving mobile.
If the level decreases it will perform handoff by
its own.

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MAHO (Mobile Assisted HandOff)

In this every mobile station measures the received power

from surrounding base stations and continually reports the
results of these measurements to the serving base station.
When the power received from the base station of a
neighboring cell begins to exceed the power received from
the current base station by a certain level or for a certain
period of time a handoff is initiated.
Since all the measurements were done by the mobile, the
load of the MSC is reduced considerably

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 Inter system handoff -occurs if a mobile moves from
one cellular system to a different cellular system
controlled by a different MSC (service provider) or
while roaming
Guard channel concept In this some channels are
reserved only for handoff.
Queuing If more number of users request handoff the
they will be placed in queue before allotting channels

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Umbrella approach

Speed of the user is a main factor in deciding a

successful handoff.

In urban areas the cell size will be very small and high
speed users will cross quickly.

To perform handoff on these high speed users we

use Micro and Macro cells concurrently.

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 Umbrella approach

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Cell dragging

Cell dragging occurs in an urban environment when

there is a line-of-sight (LOS) radio path between the
pedestrian subscriber and the base station.
Even after the user has traveled well beyond the
designed range of the cell, the received signal at the
base station does not decay rapidly resulting in Cell
Dragging

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 Soft and hard handoff
Hard handoff- when the user moves to a new cell, he
will be assigned with a new set of channels.

Soft Handoff- when the user moves to a new cell, the

channel itself will be switched to the new base
station. CDMA uses soft Handoff.

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 Interference

Co channel interference

Adjacent channel interference

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 Co channel interference
Cells that use the same set of frequencies are called
co-channel cells and the interference between
signals from these cells is called co-channel
inter ference.
To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells
must be physically separated by a minimum distance
to provide sufficient isolation due to propagation.

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 Adjacent channel interference

Interference resulting from signals which are

adjacent in frequency to the desired signal is called
adjacent channel interference.

Adjacent channel interference results from imperfect

receiver filters which allow nearby frequencies to
leak into the passband

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 Adjacent channel interference can be minimized by
keeping the frequency separation between each
channel in a given cell as large as possible

Instead of assigning channels which form a

contiguous band of frequencies to a particular cell,
channels are allocated in a non sequential manner to
have a sufficient separation .

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Improving Coverage And Capacity

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Need:

The no of users are getting increased drastically.

But the available channels are limited.

So it is necessary to find some new channels for

them.

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 Methods:

1. Cell Splitting

2. Sectoring

3. A Microcell Zone Concept

4. Repeaters

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 Cell Splitting

In urban areas the user density will be more, So the

possibility of call blocking will be more.
Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested
cell into smaller microcells.
And each microcell will have its own base station.
It is possible by reducing the antenna height and
transmitter power.

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 All the cells are not split , only the congested
cells are divided.

While allocating frequency for microcells, we

should avoid Co-Channel interference , even
though the coverage of microcells are small.

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 Disadvantage

Will lead to more number of handoffs.

More burden for MSCs

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 Sectoring

In this the cells are not divided into microcells.

Instead by using directional antennas we will

create multiple sectors in a single cell.

And the total allotted channels are divided

among the sectors.

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 Types

O
1. 60 sectoring

2. 120 sectoring
O

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 Co-channel interference can be decreased by
replacing a single Omni-directional antenna by
several directional antennas, each radiating
within a specified sector alone. Since a sector
has only a fraction of the available co-
channels.

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 Disadvantage
The available channels must be subdivided and dedicated to a
specific antenna.
So at a given point of time, some sectors may be busy and
others will be free.
Since the channels are dedicated to a particular antenna we
cannot transfer them for the congested sector.
So the efficiency of the system is reduced.
A handoff is required when user moves between Sectors.

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 A Microcell Zone Concept

A Microcell Zone is an advancement of Sectoring.

In this channels are not dedicated to any antennas.
When the user moves from zone to zone, base station
switches the channel to a different zone.
A handoff is not required when the mobile travels
between zones within the cell.

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 Repeaters
Even with advanced techniques we cannot provide complete
coverage . Places like underground parking lot, tunnels will be a
hard- to- reach.

Repeaters are bi-directional re transmitters, which are use for range

extension.

Repeaters will not increase the system capacity, it will only increase
the coverage.

It will amplify the signals.

In addition to the signals the noise is also amplified

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 Multipath Propagation

Fading

Intersymbol Interference

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 Fading
Fading is caused by interference between two or more
versions of the transmitted signal which arrive at the receiver
at slightly different times.

These waves are called multipath waves.

They combine at the receiver to give a resultant signal which

can vary in amplitude and phase.

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 Types

Small scale fading - is the rapid fluctuation of

the amplitude of a radio signal over a short
period of time or distance.
Large scale fading- is the fading associated
with a larger coverage area for a long amount
of time.

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 Small-scale & Large-scale fading
Small-scale
Large-scale

Small-scale

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 Intersymbol Interference

The signal dispersion leads to Intersymbol

Interference

Multipath waves play a major role in ISI

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 Constructive Interference

Amplitude gets boosted

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 Destructive Interference

Amplitude reduces

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Noise Limited Systems

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 Typical system

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 The power received by a receiver antenna
which is separated from a radiating
transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given
by the

Friis free space equation

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where

Pt transmitted power,

Pr(d) received power from distance d

L system loss factor

wavelength in meters

Gt transmitter antenna gain,

Gr receiver antenna gain

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 Sources of noise

Thermal noise: The noise generated by thermal

agitation of electrons in a conductor.

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 Man-made noise

Electrical appliances

Car ignitions

Other impulse sources emitting EMI.

Systems operating in unlicensed bands (2.45-

ghz)

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 Receiver noise:
This is associated with the receiver components.

The amplifiers and mixers in the RX are noisy

For a digital system, the transmission quality is often

described in terms of the Bit Error Rate (BER)
probability

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 The bit error rate or bit error ratio (BER) is the
number of bit errors divided by the total number of
transferred bits during a studied time interval.

The bit error probability pe is the expectation value

of the BER. The BER can be considered as an
approximate estimate of the bit error probability.
This estimate is accurate for a long time interval and
a high number of bit errors
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 Interference-Limited Systems
Interference is a bigger issue than noise.

Interference suffers from fading unlike noise.

To have a good communication it is necessary to

maintain good Signal-to-Interference ratio (SIR)

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 Interference-Limited Systems

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 Interference happens when two cells having
the same frequency are closer to each other
and the MS is at the cell boundary.

Interference is critical when the interfering

signal is stronger than the desired signal

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 Fading Margin

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 Fading Margin
The amount by which a received signal
level may be reduced without causing system
performance to fall below a specified
threshold value.
Normally it will be around 90% of the power.

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 Multiple Access
Techniques

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 The spectrum bandwidth available for our wireless
communication is so small, hence it is necessary to
find any means to accommodate many users.

Multiple access techniques enable multiple signals to

occupy a single communications channel.

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 Major Types

Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)

Time division multiple access (TDMA)

Code division multiple access (CDMA)

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 Frequency Division Multiple Access

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 Frequency Division Multiple Access

It assigns separate frequency to individual users.

(i.e ) accommodates one user at a time.

The bandwidths of FDMA channels are narrow (30 kHz)

The channels are allocated on-demand
When a channel is in use other users cannot access the
channel.
Once a voice channel is assigned, the base station and the
mobile transmits continuously.
FDMA supports Duplexing
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Duplexing :
A duplex communication system is a point-to-point system
that can communicate with one another in both directions
simultaneously
FDD
TDD
The FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers since both the
transmitter and receiver operate at the same time. This
results in an increase in the cost of FDMA subscriber units and
base stations.
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 Interference may happen between the adjacent channels

Hence each user is separated by Guard Bands.

A guardband is a narrow frequency band between adjacent

frequency channels to avoid interference from the adjacent
channels

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 The first Generation cellular system, the Advanced Mobile
Phone System (AMPS) is based on FDMA/FDD.

A single user occupies a single channel while the call is in

progress, and the single channel is actually two simplex
channels which are frequency duplexed with a 45 MHz split.

When a call is completed, or when a handoff occurs, the

channel is vacated so that another mobile subscriber may use
it.

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 The number of channels that can be simultaneously
supported in a FDMA system is given by

BT -> total spectrum allocation,

BGUARD -> the guard band
BC -> the channel bandwidth

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Merits

The bandwidths of FDMA channels are narrow (30

kHz)
Intersymbol interference is low
It needs only a few synchronization bits

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 De Merits
If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and cannot
be used by other users to increase or share capacity. It is a
wasted resource
FDMA systems are costlier compared to TDMA systems,
because of the single channel per user design,
Band pass filters are necessary to eliminate radiation at the
base station
FDMA requires Guard Bands to minimize adjacent channel
interference.

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Time Division Multiple
Access

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 Time division multiple access

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 TDMA vs FDMA
TDMA FDMA

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 Time division multiple access (TDMA) systems divide the radio
spectrum into time slots

Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot

A set of N slots form a Frame.

Each frame is made up of a preamble, an information

message, and tail bits

TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer-and-burst method

Transmission for any user is not continuous

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 TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users,
where each user makes use of non-overlapping time slots

TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception

In TDMA/TDD, half of the time slots in the frame information

message would be used for the forward link channels and half
would be used for reverse link channels.

High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems

because of burst transmissions

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 TDMA requires the receivers to be synchronized for each
data burst
Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not
continuous and hence the battery consumption for the
devices will be low. The subscriber transmitter can be
turned off when not in use.
Guard slots are necessary to ensure that users at the
edge of the band do not "bleed over" into an adjacent
radio service.

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 The handoff process is much simpler for a subscriber unit,
since it is able to listen for other base stations during idle time
slots.
Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO) can be carried out by a
subscriber by listening on an idle slot in the TDMA frame.
TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and
reception, thus duplexers are not required.
Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems,
since the transmission rates are generally very high as
compared to FDMA channels
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 Frame Structure

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 The preamble contains the address and
synchronization information that both the
base station and the subscribers use to
identify each other.
Trial bits specify the start of a data.
Synchronization bits will intimate the receiver
about the data transfer.
Guard Bits are used for data isolation.
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 Efficiency of TDMA

The efficiency of a TDMA system is a measure

of the percentage of transmitted data that
contains information as opposed to providing
overhead for the access scheme

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 Efficiency

The total number of bits per frame, bT, is

bT = TfR
Tf is the frame duration, and R is the channel
bit rate

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where
b0H no over head bits per frame
bp - no overhead bits per preamble in each slot
bg - no equivalent bits in each guard time interval
Nr - reference bursts per frame,
br - no of overhead bits per reference frame
Nt- traffic bursts per frame

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 And the no of frames

m - maximum number of TDMA users supported on each radio

channel

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 Spread spectrum multiple access
(SSMA)

Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (FHMA)

Direct Sequence Multiple Access (DSMA)

Direct sequence multiple access is also called code division multiple access

(CDMA).

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 Frequency Hopped Multiple Access

The carrier frequencies of the individual users are

varied in a pseudorandom fashion within a wideband
channel

The digital data is broken into uniform sized bursts

which are transmitted on different carrier
frequencies

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 Fast Frequency Hopping System -> the rate of
change of the carrier frequency is greater than
the symbol rate

Slow Frequency Hopping -> the channel

changes at a rate less than or equal to the
symbol rate

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

The narrowband message signal is multiplied by a

very large bandwidth signal called the spreading
signal (pseudo-noise code)
The chip rate of the pseudo-noise code is much
more than message signal.
Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword.

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Message

PN sequence

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 CDMA uses CO-Channel Cells
All the users use the same carrier frequency and may
transmit simultaneously without any knowledge of
others.
The receiver performs a time correlation operation
to detect only the specific desired codeword.
All other code words appear as noise

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 Multipath fading may be substantially reduced
because the signal is spread over a large spectrum
Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems
CDMA supports Soft handoff MSC can
simultaneously monitor a particular user from two or
more base stations. The MSC may chose the best
version of the signal at any time without switching
frequencies.

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 In CDMA, the power of multiple users at a receiver
determines the noise floor.
In CDMA, stronger received signal levels raise the
noise floor at the base station demodulators for the
weaker signals, thereby decreasing the probability
that weaker signals will be received. This is called
Near- Far problem.
To combat the Near- Far problem, power control is
used in most CDMA

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 Space division multiple access (SDMA)

It controls the radiated energy for each user in space.

Traditional single omnidirectional antennas are

replaced by many small directional antennas for
specific users.

It is done by Phased Array Antennas.

This will track users by their location

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Space division multiple access (SDMA)

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 Phased array
Phased array is a group of antennas in which
the relative phases of the antennas are varied
in such a way that the effective radiation
pattern of the array is reinforced in a desired
direction and suppressed in undesired
directions

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 Phased array

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