November 1980

THE NATIONAL
RATION SHIPBUl LDING
PBUILDING RESEARCH
COATINGS PROGRAM

Product Breakdown Structure

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Maritime Administration
in cooperation with
Todd Pacific Shipyards Corporation
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Standard Form 298 (Rev. 8-98)

Prescribed by ANSI Std Z39-18
 FOREWORD The Product Work Breakdown Structure (PWBS) described herein is based
upon that used by Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy industries Co., Ltd. (IHI) of
Japan. It has been developed and refined during the construction of over 2,000
ships in the last two decades. Thus, PWBS is not just based on theory. It has been
repeatedly proven in all IHI shipyards and in other shipyards in Asia, Europe and
South America which have adopted IHI methods.
PWBS employs the logic of Group Technology (GT) which is a method for ap-
plying mass production techniques to a variety of products in widely varying
quantities. As applied to ship construction, PWBS classifies components to be
purchased, parts to be fabricated and planned subassemblies in order to achieve
uniform and coordinated work flows. In shipbuilding, as in other industries, GT
has yielded substantial benefits even when resources remained essentially unchanged.
The transition to PWBS has already begun in some U.S. shipyards. Implementa-
tion is difficult only because of human problems. PWBS features unprecedented in-
tegration of hull construction, outfitting and painting. Further, it features cost
centers which exactly match a zone-oriented organization. Thus, it does not permit
isolationist performers to claim credit without evaluating their impact on the work of
others. Also, more so than ever before, PWBS puts cross hairs on the perform-
ances of shipbuilding managers and workers.

IRON STURT, a 22,000-deadweight ton multi-purpose cargo carrier, the 5,200-displacernent ton helicopter destroyer SHIRANE (delivery March 1980) and
the 484,000-deadweight ton tanker GLOBTIK TOKYO, not shown, were all constructed by IHI with the PWBS described herein.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is Y. Okayama, Consulting Group Manager, IHI International Divi-
sion.
The editor and contributing author is L.D. Chirillo, R&D Program Manager,
Todd Pacific Shipyards Corporation, Seattle Division.
Special appreciation is expressed to H. Tamura, M. Muraoka, Y. Tamura,
N. Yamamoto, F. Kojima and M. Fukuda, truly professional shipbuilders of IHIs
Kure Shipyard, for their contributions and to L.F. McGinnes, School of Industrial
& Systems Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, for participating in the
editing effort. Appreciation is also expressed to Y. Mikami, M. Kuriki and Y.
Ichinose, of IHI Marine Technology and to the people in Todd Seattle, particularly
D.S. Hunter and A.E. Clark, who furnished essential support.
This book is a cooperative effort by Todd, the Maritime Administrations Office
of Advanced Ship Development and the Ship Production Committee of the So-
ciety of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers~
This book is dedicated to the memory of
a ship-material supplier
from San Francisco, California

James A. Stasek
December 31, 1925 September 1, 1980

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

iii
i v
 LIST OF FIGURES

1-1 Reiterative Development of Work Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...2

1-2 Outfit Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1-3 Three Dimensional Product Work Breakdown Structure . . . . . . . . . . . ...4
1-4 T,N and Q are Interdependent Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...5
1-5 Balanced T,N and Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1-6 Work Package Decision Logic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2-1 Dual Grouping in the Management Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...7

2-2 Product-oriented Design Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...8
2-3 ZOFM Design and Production Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...9
2-4 Integrated Work Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2-5 Integrated Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3-1 HBCM Manufacturing Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3-2 HBCM Product Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...15
3-3 Part Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...16
3-4 Part Assembly . . . ......................................... . . . . . . . . . . ....17
3-5 Sub-block Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...18
3-6 Block Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3-7 Semi-block and Block Assembly--Bottom Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...21
3-8 Block Assembly and Grand-block Joining-Top Wing . . . . . . . . . . . ...22
3-9 Semi-block and Block AssemblyBottom Wing and Side . . . . . . . . ...23
3-10 Block Assembly and Grand-block Joining-Bulkhead . . . . . . . . . . . . ...24
3-11 Block Assembly and Grand-block Joining-Stern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...25
3-12 Block Assembly-Upper Deck and Engine-room Flat . . . . . . . . . . . . ...26
3-13 Semi-block and Block AssemblyBow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3-14 Semi-block and Block Assembly--Focsle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...28
3-15 Grand-block Joining--Focsle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3-16 Block Assembly and Grand Block Joining--Engine-roomBottom . . ...30
3-17 Block Assembly-Side Shell of Engine Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 31
3-18 ZOFM Manufacturing Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3-19 ZOFM Product Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3-20 Area Subdivisions for Design and Material Preparations . . . . . . . . . . ...36
3-21 Various Outfit-unit Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...38
3-22 Standard Machinery Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3-23 Lube-oil Cooler Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...39
3-24 Hatch Cover and Coaming Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3-25 General-service Pump Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3-26 Radar Mast and Foremast Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3-27 On-block Outfitting--PipeTunnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4I
3-28 On-block Outfitting-Engine-room Tank Top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3-29 ZPTM Manufacturing Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
3-30 ZPTM Product Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..45
3-31 ZPTM Paint Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3-32 Grand Block--Deck and Bulkhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
3-33 Grand Block--Side Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3-34 Grand Block--Side Shell During Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...48
3-35 On-ceiling Outfitting-Bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3-36 On-floor Outfitting-Bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3-37 On-ceiling Outfitting-Engine-room Flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..50
3-38 Engine-room Flat-After On-floor Outfitting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
3-39 On-floor Outfitting-Engine-room Flat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...51
3-40 Erection--1st Engine-room Flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..5 I
3-41 On-ceiling Outfitting-Accommodation Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...52
3-42 On-ceiling Outfitting-Accommodation Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...52
3-43 Grand-block Joining-Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3-44 Keel Laying Plus 11 Workdays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...53
3-45 Keel Laying Plus 13 Workdays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3-46 Keel Laying Plus 15 Workdays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...54
3-47 Keel Laying Plus 19 Workdays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3-48 Keel Laying Plus 22Workdays--Aft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...55
3-49 Keel Laying Plus 22 WorkdaysForeward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...56
3-50 Keel Laying Plus 24 Workdays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...56
3-51 Keel Laying Plus 24 Workdays-Main Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...57

vi
3-52 Keel Laying P1us 27 Workdays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...57
3-53 Keel Laying PIus 28 Workdays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...58
3-54 Keel Laying Plus 29 Workdays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3-55 Keel Laying Plus 29 Workdays-Completing Superstructure . . . . . . . ...59
3-56 Operation IRON STURT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...59

4-1 PPFM Manufacturing Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...62

4-2 PPFM Product Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...63
4-3 Area Subdivisions for PPFM Asembly and Joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...64
4-4 Differences in Grouping PPFM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..64

5-1 Identification Codes for Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...68

5-2 Material Cost Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5-3 Cost Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5-4 Indices for Monitoring Man-hours, Progress and Productivity . . . . . . . ..7l
5-5 Cost Classifications and Charging Methods for Facilities
and Expenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...72

6-1 Management Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...73

6-2 Manpower Expenditures--Hull Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...75
6-3 Manpower Expenditures--Machinery Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
6-4 Manpower Expenditures--Electrical Assembly Less Cable . . . . . . . . ...75
6-5 Manpower Expenditures-EIectrical Assembly Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6-6 Production ProgressHull Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6-7 Productivity--Parts Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6-8 Productivity--Subassembly and Block Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...76
6-9 Productivity--Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6-10 Productivity--Machinery Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6-11 Productivity--Electrical Fitting Less Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...76
6-12 Productivity Control Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

vii
 A productive shipbuilding industry
is an indispensable element of seapower.

The Editor

Whosoever commands the sea commands

the trade; whosoever commands the trade
of the world commands the riches of
the world, and consequently, the
world itself

Sir Walter Raleigh

1552 1618

VIII
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

The work required for any large construction project of similar

2
developments elsewhere to enhance machine tool
must be subdivided in order to be readily analyzed and usage.
managed. Any such subdivision scheme is a work break-
down structure. In industries which produce machined parts, GT is a
means for improving productivity, even for a variety of
Traditional shipbuilders employ work subdivisions by custom requirements, by grouping parts by their common
ships functional systems which are natural and appropriate characteristics. The basis for such groups, or families, is
for estimating and for early design stages. However, system that there are common processes for the manufacture of all
orientation for planning, scheduling and execution is un- parts within a group. Thus, parts are classified by both
natural and inappropriate because it leads to poor coordina- design and manufacturing attributes which are reflected in
tion of work and generally results in work packages which coding schemes. The codes typically address form, dimen-
are too large for effective control of material, manhours and sions, tolerances, material, and types and complexity of
schedules. machining operations. They reflect need for exact identifica-
tion of previously manufactured parts for the purpose of
The way that ships, and most other manufactured arti- retrieving process standards.
facts, are actually produced is by procuring or fabricating
parts and joining them to create subassemblies. In turn, In shipbuilding it is the interim products, i.e., fabricated
these are combined through several manufacturing levels to parts and various Subassemblies, which are susceptible to
produce increasingly larger subassemblies. Thus, the ideal similar classification by the problems their manufacture im-
way to subdivide ship-construction work is to focus on poses. Such classifications are the singular means used by
needed parts and subassemblies, i.e., the actual interim the worlds most competitive shipbuilders to plan work.
products that preoccupy workers. A scheme to subdivide They are able to more uniformly distribute work between
work in accordance with art interim-product view, is a contract award and delivery for each ship and better coor-
product-oriented work breakdown structure. dinate the outputs of work-process lanes even for a
simultaneous mix of ship types and sizes. Thus, they achieve
The need for a product-oriented work breakdown struc- many of the benefits of batch manufacturing while produc-
ture which conforms with the way a ship is built was iden- ing interim products that are manifestly unlike each other.3
tified for U.S. shipbuilders over a decade ago. 1 At that time
there were already substantial applications by some ship- Unique classification by certain product aspects conven-
builders abroad. tionally relate a part or subassembly to a system or zone of a
ship design and also to the work processes by problem area
1.1 Conformance With Group Technology and by work stage. Thus, product aspects are classifications
for both design and manufacturing attributes. This concept
Unlike system-oriented methodologies, product orienta- combined with a greater degree of interaction between
tion facilitates identifying work by classes of problems. design and production specialists has proven to be a power-
Where applied and exploited by shipbuilders, the logic and ful means for improving productivity.4
principles of Group Technology (GT) emerged independent
1
"A Study of Shipbuilding Cost Estimating Methodology for the maritime Administration by Engineering & Management Sciences Corporation dated 20
January 1969.
2
Group Technology is ... the logical arrangement and sequences of all facets of company operations in order to bring the benefits of mass production to high
variety, mixed quantity production. Group Technology A Foundation for Better Total Company Operation, G.M. Ranson, McGraw-Hill, London, 1972,
p.1. Group Technology is also called Family Manufacturing.
3
Also called pseudo-batch manufacturing.
4
Where successfully applied there is much dependence on field engineers. In the Aioi Shipyard of Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. (IHI), near-
ly 2% of the 1060 people assigned to hull construction fabrication and assembly are field engineers. They number almost 6% of the 715 people so assigned to
outfitting and painting. Circa June 1980.

1
 Work packages classified by product aspects are system- codes do not reflect need to identify whether a particular in-
atically analyzed in order to determine their productivity terim product has been made before as the classifications
values. As shown in Figure 1-1, the analyses may be reiter- apply to ship designs of any type and size that are custom-
ative through several planning levels. Where such invest- ized to any degree.
ment is made, the work packages are immediately improved
based upon restudy following production. Thus, the work Emphatically, the codes do provide for identification of
packages reflect an accumulation of experiences. They are, work problems imposed. Thus, interim products which are
to a remarkable degree, adaptable to ships of different sizes different looking from each other and for different ships,
and types, therefore initial costs justify amortization over are grouped together for processing in accordance with a
subsequent ship construction projects.5 common set of solutions; see Figure 1-2.

The independent emergence of the logic and principles of 1.2 Work Package Classifications
GT in shipbuilding caused the development of codes which
typically address type of work, resources required and The concepts of the Product Work Breakdown Structure
unique product aspects. The latter include zone codes which
(PWBS) described herein, Group Technology (GT) and
designate disposition of an interim product for later Family Manufacturing (FM) are similar. All feature
classifications to permit grouping of products by similarities
assembly of a larger interim product. Significantly, the in production problems without regard for end-use systems.
Logically the PWBS first divides the shipbuilding process in-
to three basic types of work: hull construction, outfitting
and painting, because each imposes problems that are in-
herently different from the others. Further, each is readily
6
subdivided into fabrication and assembly types of work. It
is these assembIy subdivisions that are naturally linked to
zones and which are the basis for zone dominance in the
management cycles of the most competitive shipbuilding
firms. Zone-oriented production, i.e. the Hull Block Con-
struction Method (HBCM), is already being applied for hull
construction by most shipyards. But, the same logic is not
yet everywhere employed for outfitting by zones which is
more complex and difficult to undertake. 7
Secondly, PWBS classifies interim products in accord-
ance with their needs for resources, i.e. material, man-
power, facilities and expenses. Thus for example, different
structural panels regardless of their intended locations in a
ship, have resources classified and allocated in accordance
with common parameters. Likewise, different outfit units
are treated the same way. Definitions of the product
resources are:
Material, to be used for production, either direct or in-
direct, e.g., steel plate, machinery, cable, oil, etc.
Manpower, to be charged for production, either direct
or indirect, e.g., welder, gas cutter, fitter, finisher, rig-
ger, material arranger, transporter, etc.
Facilities, to be applied for production, either direct or
indirect, e.g., buildings, docks, machinery, equipments,
tools, etc.

FIGURE I-1: The reiterative development of work packages. Design Expenses, to be charged for production, either direct or
and material definition are regarded as aspects of planning. indirect, e.g., designing, transporation, sea trials,
ceremonies, etc.

S
Regardless of differences in functional systems, zone/area/stage classifications of comparable work packages for different size ships of the same type, change
very little. Even for different type ships, such classifications remain essentially the same for work related to bows, sterns, engine rooms and superstructures
6
Painting-fabrication applies to the manufacture of paintpainting-assembly applies to its application. The former is usually not applicable in shipyards.
7
A methodology for zone outfitting was introduced to U.S. shipbuilders by the publication of Outfit Planning -December 1979 by C.S. Jonson and L.D
Chirillo, for the National Shipbuilding Research Program.

2
 FIGURE 1-2: Outfit units which are dissimilar in arrangement and in functions
incorporated, have the same classification in a product-oriented work breakdown
structure because the problems associated with their assembly are the same.

In order to optimize productivity in realistic circum- superstructure, engine room, etc., and their sub-divi-
stances, a ship must be constructed in accordance with a sions or combinations [e.g., a structural block or outfit
carefully established plan that envisions: unit, a subassembly of either and ultimately a part or
component).
processes for manufacturing parts and subassemblies
leading to outfit units and structural blocks within time Area - A division of the production process into
frames that can be coordinated, and similar types of work problems which can be
simultaneous use of each process for the requirements - by feature (e.g., curved vs. flat blocks, steel vs.
of different systems even in different ships. aluminum structure, small diameter vs. large diameter
pipe, pipe material, etc.)
The third classification, by the four product aspects, addresses
these needs because it contains essentials needed for control - by quantity (e.g., job-by-job vs. flow lane, volume of
of production processes. on-block outfitting for machinery space vs. volume of
on-block outfitting for other than machinery space,
Two product aspects, system and zone are means for etc.)
dividing a ship design into planned manageable parcels.
Each, for example, can apply to a number of parts or to one - by quality (e.g., grade of workers required, grade of
specific assembly. Each of the latter is usually addressed by facilities required, etc.)
a separate work package. The other two product aspects,
area and stage, are means for dividing the work process - by kind of work (e.g., marking, cutting, bending,
from material procurement to complete ship delivery. The welding, blasting, bolting, painting, testing, cleaning,
product aspects are: etc.), and
System - A structural function or an operational func- - by anything else that creates a manifestly different
tion of a product, i.e., longitudinal bulkhead, trans- work problem.
verse bulkhead, mooring system, fuel-oil service system,
lighting system, etc. Stage - a division of the production process by se-
quences, e.g., sub-steps of fabrication, sub-assembly,
Zone - An objective of production which is any assembly, erection, outfitting on-unit, outfitting on-
geographical division of a product, e.g., cargo hold, block, and outfitting on-board.

3
The three-dimensional nature of the Product Work Break- other words, PV is optimized when the influences of T, N
down Structure (PWBS) described in the foregoing is illus- and Q are balanced.
trated in Figure 1-3.
The function f(T, N, Q) must be determined empirically
1.3 Work Package Productivity Value by each shipyard and separately for each classification of
the production process by problem area. In addition, each
When an interim product is identified by product aspects, such determination must consider the immediate preceding
it is necessary to evaluate its efficiency as a work package and following work stages. For example, Q includes con-
which can be expressed by the formula sideration of the quality specified for an interim product. If
its contribution to PV is not enough, the quality of the in-
PV = f(T,N,Q) terim product is not good enough for a larger assembly.
where: Further, productivity values cannot be precisely deter-
mined. Therefore, they are guidance to serve a judgemental
PV = productivity value, i.e., the productive efficiency process for evaluating work packages. Their use at first in-
of a work package volves trial and error and thereafter experience. For example
T = time allowed for its accomplishment, i.e. working a geographical division of a product into seemingly ideal
time zones, could yield unacceptable work packages when the
needed work processes are analyzed by problem areas. Zone
N = number of of units of resources; particularly com- boundaries wouId then be adjusted until there is an ideal
ponents in the material list and man-hours allocated compromise of zone and area considerations. Each propos-
ed work package should be so evaluated regardless of
Q = quality of work circumstance, e.g., downhand vs. whether it has been employed in the past. It is probable that
overhead, high vs. low, etc., and also quality specified some circumstance, especially regarding resources and time
for the interim product available, will have changed.
T, N and Q are interdependent and as shown in Figure 1-4 Figure 1-6 shows the applicability of PWBS to a variety of
they impact differently on PV. As they cannot be evaluated industrial methods. It is a decision logic table for evaluating
separately it is useful to symbolize PV as a triangle having work packages associated with all of the theoretically
sides that represent T, N and Q. Optimum PV is then available combinations of product aspects. Where ex-
represented by an equilateral triangle, see Figure 1-5. In

4
 T N T

Q Q
FIGURE 1-4: T, N and Q are interdependent variables. However, FIGURE 1-5: PV is optimized when the influences of T, N and Q are
each one influences PV differently. balanced.

perience exists, many evaluations are not necessary and Further productivity increases were achieved by adoption of
some are performed intuitively. The remainder are the area-oriented Pipe Piece Family Manufacturing Method
evaluated with the assistance of equations similar to that (PPFM). These proven concepts have significantly con-
described in the foregoing. tributed to:
1.4 Versatility and Benefits simpler assembly methods,
From a product-oriented viewpoint each work package the rationalization and automation of facilities, and
can address, theoretically, all four of the product aspects.
But sometimes to fulfill other needs certain product aspects more uniform and simultaneous workloads for fabrica-
may be disregarded. When zone is eliminated, grouping is tion shops and assembly teams.
made by system, area and stage. This is the traditional
System (-oriented) Work Breakdown Structure (SWBS). If Their benefits are manifested by:
system is deleted, grouping is made by zone, area and stage. improved safety,
This is called a Zone (-oriented) Work Breakdown Structure
(ZWBS). If both system and zone are disregarded, grouping improved work environments,
is by area and stage. This is an area-oriented work
breakdown structure, a term not generally used. Figure 1-6 better quality, and
is marked to show specific examples of system, zone and
area orientations. higher productivity.

Shipbuilding methods have consistently become more

productive during the past three decades mainly because of
the change from traditional system-oriented processes to the
following zone-oriented processes:
Hull Block Construction Method (HBCM),
Zone Outfitting Method (ZOFM), and
Zone Painting Method (ZPTM).

5
 2.0 AN APPROACH TO PRODUCT WORK
BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE (PWBS)

Many shipyards are equipped with modern enough chical subdivision continues by zone/area/stage with the
facilities having sufficient capacity to build many types and preparation of detail design drawings for pipe pieces and
sizes of both commercial and naval ships. However, the components other than pipe and their respective material
periods usually allowed for design and production are much lists. As also shown in Figure 2-2, the planning process con-
longer than that needed by competitive shipbuilders with tinues until each zone is broken down to a minimum level.-
comparable facilities. As a consequence, their production i.e., components that are to be purchased and the material
levels relative to facilities are unnecessarily low. Significant requirements for such parts that are to be fabricated.
reasons for this state of affairs are their adherence to
system-oriented work breakdowns, continued dependence
on system-oriented design and production organizations,
and dependence on divisions of ship designs by systems for Transformation
allocations of material and manpower. in accounting

2.1 Dual Grouping

In conventional shipbuilding, all functions of the
management cycle, i.e., estimating, planning, scheduling,
executing and accounting, are consistently system oriented.
Cost classifications for estimated material and manpower
requirements are by system. Typically, drawings and
material lists are issued per system and work packages are
broken down within each system for scheduling, executing
and evaluating. From a limited managerial viewpoint, such
consistency is favorable.
In contrast, PWBS has more than one character. It per-
mits dual groupings, e.g., work packages by product aspects
and cost classifications by product resources. Thus, man-
power expenditures can be collected by zone/area/stage
while material costs can be collected by system. The unique
multiple character of PWBS is illustrated in Figure 2-1.
2.2 Design and Material Definition
The transformations of design and material definition
from system to zone orientations are illustrated in Figure FIGURE 2-1: Dust grouping in the management cycle facilitated by a
2-2. As shown, a ship as a total system is separated into in- Product Work Breakdown Structure (PWBS). Design and material
dividual systems on functional drawings for which material definition are aspects of planning. Material procurement is as much a
lists by system are prepared. Transformation to zone orien- part of executing as is producing.
tation begins with a block plan for hull construction and
composite drawings for outfitting. These incorporate all
systems and show zone boundaries. They are further proc-
essed to add area/stage considerations which for hull con-
struction are designated on assembly, subassembly and cut-
ting plans. For outfitting, they are designated on working
drawings (work instruction drawings) each of which is
developed together with its own material list of fittings for
either on-unit, on-block or on-board outfitting. The hierar-

7
 TOTAL SYSTEM SYSTEM

DETAIL DESIGN (WORKING DRAWINGS)

FUNCTIONAL DESIGN
BASIC DESIGN

CUlTiNG
PLAN

COMPOSITES WORK INSTRUCTION & MATERIAL DETAIL DESIGN DRAWINGS

PIPE CUTTlNG
PLAN

PIPE PIECE
MANUF.
LANE PLAN
[ MLC
I l l

etc.
II I PIPING
DIAGRAM

kI

CABLE
CUTTING
PLAN

FIGURE 2-2: Pridyct- oriented Design Process. Transition Design introduces zones and interrelations with systems. The items marked are sometimes
freehand. But, they are sufficient for quickly conveying arrangements and system/zone relationships to detail designers. The latter refine arrangements and
designate stages during preparation of work instruction and material detail-design drawings.

8
 PIPE
FABRICATION SHOP
DECK
ELECTRIC OUTFlTTlNG
z DESIGN GROUP DECK
OUTFlTTING SECTION
ACCOMMODATION
OUTFlTTING ACCOMMODATtON
DESIGN GROUP OUTFlTTING SECTION

MACHINERY MACHINERY
OUTFITTING OUTFlTTING SECTION
DESIGN GROUP
ELECTRIC
ELECTRIC OUTFITTING SECTION
OUTFITTING
DESIGN GROUP PRODUCTION PIANNING
& ENGINEERING GROUP

FIGURE2-3: Where the zone Outfitting Method (ZOFM) is used, design and production are organized to specialize by fabrication and assembly prob-
lems associated with deck, accmmodation, machinery and electrical outfitting. This conforms with a basic tenet of Group Technology (GT), i.e.,
matching classes of problems to sets of solutions.

Product-oriented design features a sequence for grouping Figure 2-3. are deck. accommodation. machinery and elec-
product aspects, i.e., by total system, - individual - system,
system/zone and zone/area/stage. These groupings are are assigned to a-group having responsibilities for a single
respectively employed in basic design, functional design, production-problem class. Within such groups there is im-
transition design and detail design. Obviously, there is a proved horizontal communication such as that between
need to manage a transition which interrelates systems and piping and vent duct designers assigned to machinery outfit-
zones for each ship design as is already being done for hull ting. They become more expert about their particular class,
construction by some shipbuilders who have not totally are led away from insignificant fine tuning of systems, and
adopted zone orientation. instead focus on composite drawings marked to show how a
ship is to be assembled and on structured material lists. They
The zone-oriented Hull Block Construction Method have eliminated system arrangement drawings and have
(HBCM) achieved acceptance in traditional design organiza- developed surprisingly interference-free and simplified com-
tions probably because in these organizations, all hull struc- posites (drawings or scale models) directly from diagram-
tural systems are assigned to a single design group. This matrics.
facilitates the coordination needed to produce a block plan
which accurately reflects the apportionment of parts of hull 2.3 Producing
systems to specific blocks.
Figure 2-4 shows work process lanes, organized by classes
In contrast, the outfit systems are assigned to separate of problems, and how their end products must integrate for
design groups in a traditional design organization. This zone-oriented production. Fabrication shops and assembly
separation of design responsibilities by system is satisfactory sections are grouped along the various process lanes.
for functional design but is not suitable for detail design. It
perpetuates preparation of expensive and unnecessary Traditionally, hull construction has always been assigned
system-arrangement drawings resulting in delayed prepara- to a single producing division associated with a single trade
tion of needed composite drawings. Primarily because of union. Therefore, the general adoption of hull block con-
the multiplicity of outfit design groups, it is difficult to struction in process lanes similar to those illustrated in
define interim products on detail design drawings by Figure 2-4 is not surprising. However, the outfit and inte-
zone/area/stage and to provide structured material lists. grated (hull construction and outfit) process lanes shown are
Both are essential for zone-oriented material procurement quite different from those of shipbuilders who still use
and for control of work flows in process lanes. system-oriented work packages for outfit fabrication and
assembly.
Therefore, where zone outfitting has been adopted some
shipbuilders have reorganized design, and even production,
by classes of problems. Typical such classes as shown in

Incorporating electrical as a fourth classification is a concession to tradition. Perhaps when there is general use of electric-cable splices solely to facilitate ship-
building, assembly of electrical systems will be Planned just as if they were pipe or vent-duct systems. If the latter is unacceptable to traditionalists, it is more
logical to classify electrical as a type of work analogous to hull construction, outfitting and painting.

9
 FIGURE 2-4.: Simplified integrated processes for simultaneous hull construction and
on fitting, Painting would appear as additional processes in additional sub-stages in

sages, such as block turnover when outfitting on block, are also omitted.

PART FOR FLAT

FLAT FLAT PANEL
PANEL PANEL BLOCK

PART FOR CURVED

CURVEO
CURVED PANEL 5
PANEL
PANEL BLOCK

MATERIAL BENDING ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLY

CUTTING I
SUBLOCK
MATERIAL PART FABRICTION BLOCK

P - - - - - - - - - -

DECK
CURVED P'L

MATERIAL MANUFACTURING
I PALLETIZINQ 1
UNIT ASSEMBLY
I
ON BOLOCK ON ORAND BLOCK

MATERIAL ASSEBLY BENDING PALLETIZING UNIT ASSEMBLY ON BLOCK OUTFITTING

CUTTING
- - - - - - - I

ON BOARO
OUTFITTING
lNTEGRATED WITH
HULL
ERECTION
 FIGURE 2-5: Organization of integrated Hull Construction, Outfitting and Painting Schedules. The position of the Block Erection Master Schedule
is an indicator of the importance of blocks defined to facilitate outfitting and painting its addition to huIl construction throughput.

For example, in a system-oriented production organiza- Iy encourage development of an outfitter trade as

tion workers are assigned to a pipe shop which fabricates described in the foregoing paragraph.
and assembles pieces required for all pipe systems. In a
zone-oriented organization, such workers are assigned Zone-oriented worker skills should not be isolated to just
either to a fabrication shop or to a team specialized for a an objective of management because they are also credited
specific category of assembly problems. In addition to for significantly improving safety, work environment, quali-
assembling all but high pressure pipe, each fitter assembles ty and productivity. All are justification to include zone out-
everything for which a manual stick welder or spanner fitting in the3 bargaining positions of both labor and
wrench suffices, e.g., pipe supports, walkways, handrails, management.
electric-cable trays, pipe and vent-duct pieces, etc. Other
trades represented on a team are as needed for special or ex- 2.4 Controlling
Zone-oriented scheduling is necessary to control the flows
Even where traditional system-organizations exist, there of work on various process lanes so that the creation of in-
are means for an almost equally effective assignment of terim products anticipates only immediate needs. Such
manpower. At least one shipyard, having a contract with scheduling coordinates hull construction, outfitting and
one labor union which includes all trades, can assign people painting and allows periods after work stages for the collec-
of one trade to assist those of another to a reasonable tion and distribution of interim products to other work sta-
degree. Further in another shipyard, the introduction of just tions. The goal is to minimize buffer stowages. Thus, inte-
zone-oriented hull construction has contributed to the com- grated schedules as shown in Figure 2-5 are essential for the
bining of many related specialists into two, i.e., a fitter who period starting with fabrication through final outfitting.
does some welding and a welder for special or large amounts The schedules should address all fabrication and assembly
of welding. Therefore it is probable that a general work including lofting and painting.
understanding of the benefits of zone outfitting will similar-

some shipbuilders abroad assign a team that is specialized in the production of interim products of a particular problem class.
' Some unionists advocate productivity improvement as a means for achieving job security. A S a consequence of a few steel plant shutdowns the President of
the United Steel Workers said Where we see poor maintenance or the failure to innovate and Stay modem we will make such matters a subject of discussion
with management. Business Week: December 24, 1979; p 46.

11
 The most detailed schedule, e.g., a weekly schedule, The indirect collection of costs by system may seem to
should be based upon work packages which, ideally, are some people to be a degradation of feedback to estimators.
sized for work to be performed by two people in one week. However, systems-oriented large or open-ended work
Such work package sizes, relatively small compared to those packages are commonly abused to absorb other work or
used for system-oriented methods, facilitate control of work idleness caused, for example, by the insufficient availability
flows and accurate progress reporting of manpower and of work. Thus, while collecting costs by a zone-oriented
material costs by zone/area/stage. method and applying them to systems in accordance with
estimated distributions is less precise, it produces more accu-
The need for small work packages cannot be understated. rate data due to inherently better control.
With structured material lists they are the very essence of
control because Because of the multiple character of PWBS, material
usage is easily collected both by system and zone. Where
. progress determinations are based upon only tangible functional designers are required to identify all materials per
aspects, i.e., material is either unassembled or assem- system diagrammatic, there is quick corroboration of the
material estimate. If a catastrophic error is disclosed there is
time for remedial measures before the major procurement
the greater number of work activities enhance flexibility. effort begins.
Flexibility, i.e., the wherewithal to quickly identify good Further, when functional designers are additionally re-
options based upon constant feedback about material pro- quired to divide each material list by system into lists of
curement and work progress, is necessary for successful use material required for various material ordering zones, it is
of PWBS. Adjustments are needed to counter potential possible to quickly corroborate estimated manpower re-
delays and early completions. Adjustments could include quirements. This is feasible when the system/zone transfor-
transfer of workers between process lanes, the use of over- mation indices are based upon material, e.g., man-hours/
time or short term schedule changes. The objectives are to hundredweight of fittings, manhours/foot of electric cable,
maintain uniform work flow within each process lane and etc. Where these techniques are applied, the rapid feedback
to estimators is of sufficient accuracy for immediate use in
preparing another estimate.
Composing the prerequisite work packages could be a
major stumbling block without the benefit of prior ex- All material requirements are listed by system for pur-
perience, particularly for shipyards which have not yet in- chasing and subsequently on structured material lists for
stituted the Hull Block Construction Method (HBCM). issue purposes. Therefore, the interrelationships maintained
However, the goal is clear; work packages per ship shouId by designers permit material progressing by zone to be ac-
be uniform in work content as much as possible. Regardless curately converted to material progressing by system if a
of the difficulties, managers have to keep in mind that work customer so desires. Similarly, the system/zone transforma-
by system is inherently associated with diminished control. tion indices could serve a customers requirement to prog-
System orientation features relatively large work packages ress manpower by system.
which do not address modem shipbuilding methods.
Primarily they are ineffectual for control because they re-
quire execution over relatively long time periods. It is axio-
matic, without effective control, costs are higher regardless
of the disciplines applied for their collection.
2.5 Costing
Zone orientation introduced the powerful concept of con-
trol linked to many relatively small amounts of material
grouped by zone/area/stage. Where applied, progress
reporting and cost collections are zone oriented so that
managers have tangible means of corroborating work com-
pleted in order to forecast work remaining and resources re-
quired for completion. In order to serve estimators, man-
power costs by system have to be rationalized. Certain in-
dices, described in Chapters 5.0 and 6.0 are needed for
distribution of spent man-hours to systems.

A senior manager in the worlds foremost shipbuilding industry saidIn Japan we have to control material because we cannot control people. Y. Mikami to
L. D. Chirillo, June 1980.
3
An accuracy control philosophy practiced in Japan addresses, in addition to avoidance of inaccuracies, the wherewithal to quickly identify the best option
when an inaccuracy jeopardizes scheduled work flow. Knowledgeable people, assigned collaterally to an accuracy-control committee, respond quickly
estimate rework and to recommend where and when it should be performed.

12
 3.0 DEFINING WORK PACKAGES

Because inherently different types of work are required, a - for on-block outfitting and painting, they are sized for
product-oriented breakdown of ship construction work maximum space (area and/or volume).
should anticipate the following zone-oriented methods:
Also, there should be similarities in volume, weight,
Hull Block Construction Method (HBCM), shape, etc., even at the expense of design convenience, in
order to distribute work evenly throughout the fabrication
Zone Outfitting Method (ZOFM), and and assembly levels which precede block assembly. Thus,
planners have to keep in mind that breaking down the work
Zone Painting Method (ZPTM). leading to block assembly requires:
Also, because large quantities and varieties of pipe pieces - shifting welding from difficult to down-hand posi-
are needed, the work breakdown should anticipate area- tions in order to reduce the working times needed, and
oriented Family Manufacturing (FM).
- distributing much work traditionally performed dur-
Work packages are ideally sized for the three zone- ing bIock assembly among earlier levels in order to
oriented methods when for each process lane: equalize their working times.
. their required working times for all manufacturing
For large ships, blocks planned in accordance with the
levels are the same, and foregoing, should also be of the largest size permitted by
- within each manufacturing level, their work amounts facilities. The same planning applied to a smaller ship of the
are the same. same basic type, quickly achieves nearly the same work
balance with the same game plan. This is an important
Compliance with these conditions permits each process lane competitive advantage. However, pertinent work package
to be operated as an assembly line where work starts, flows contents, working times and interim-product sizes become
and stops in unison. In order to balance work accordingly, smaller. Thus, there is sometimes need for an additional
special manufacturing levels outside the main flow are needed manufacturing level for joining blocks into grand blocks.
to adjust work amounts and to provide for interim-product
features that would otherwise be disruptive. With regard for these objectives it is practical to plan hull
construction in seven levels as shown in Figure 3-1. Starting
3.1 Hull Block Construction Method (HBCM.) with the block level, work is subdivided down to the part
fabrication level for the purpose of optimizing work flow.
Ideal blocks, i.e. zones, are key objectives as the basis for In contrast, work assigned to the grand block level serves to
control in HBCM. But, blocks also impact on zone outfit- minimize the duration required for erection in a building
ting and painting. Therefore the definition of blocks, com- dock.
pared to that for other interim products, has the greatest in-
fluence on shipbuilding productivity. Within each level other than the grand block and hull
erection levels, the resulting proposed interim products are
Blocks should be designed so that: examined for similarities in their product aspects. Then,
they are grouped by similarities in order to:
- for block assembly purposes, they are assignable to
one of a minimum number of work package groups - further modularize the production processes,
considering similarities in problem area and the need
to minimize variations in working times, - justify expensive but highly efficient facilities, and

for block erection purposes, they will be stable con- - achieve manpower savings.
figurations requiring no temporary support or rein-
forcement and otherwise shaped to achieve minimum
working times, and

13
 GRAND-BLOCK
JOINING

- .

BLOCK BLOCK
ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLY

FIGURE3-1: Typical Manufacturing Levels for the Hull Block Construction Method (HBCM). For maximum productivity the main work flow must be unifom
A manufacturing level is a combination of work operations which transforms various inputs into distinct interim products, e.g., raw materials into pans, parts into
sub-block assemblies, etc. Astage as shown in Figure 3-2, is one of a number of work operations within a manufacturing level.

14
 PRODUCT ASPECTS
PLAN'G MFG
LEVEL LEVEL
ZONE AREA
I STAGE
I

1 7

FLAT
2 6
PANEL

B A C K A S S E M B L Y

3 5

BACK ASSEMBLY NIL

4 4 ASSEMBLY

SIMlLAR
SIZE IN A
LARGE
QUANTITY

5 3

ASSEMBLY

6 2
SUB-BLOCK
I I BENDING I NIL I

PART

I ASSEMBLY

BENDING NIL

7 1 MARKING & CUTTING

I PLATE
JOINING I NIL

FIGURE 3-2: Typical classifications of product aspects for the Hull Block Construction Method (HBCM).

15
 Typical groupings by product aspects are presented in 3.1.1 Part Fabrication
Figure 3-2. The horizontal combinations characterize the
various types of work packages that are requisite and suffi- As shown in Figure 3-2, part fabrication is the first manu-
cient for the work to be performed for each level. Vertical facturing level. It produces components or zones for hull con-
combinations of the various types of work packages denote struction which cannot be further subdivided. Typical work
the process lanes for hull construction work flow which cor- packages are grouped by zone and:
respond to those simply illustrated in Figure 2-4. by area, for associating raw materials, finished parts,
When product resources are allocated, each work package fabrication processes and relevant facilities separately
is optimally sized based upon determination of its produc- for:
tivity value (PV). Some reiteration can be expected because
grouping by problem area at each level is dependent upon - parallel parts from plate
the productivity values achievable. Maximum productivity - non-parallel parts from plate
is obtained when:
- internal parts from plate
- work is evenly allocated to work packages grouped by
their product aspects, and - parts from rolled shapes
- there are quick responses to potential work unbalance - other parts, e.g., from pipe, etc.
such as shifting workers between manufacturing levels
and/or flow lanes, authorizing overtime or even astute
short-term schedule changes.

PART FABRICATION LEVEL

PLATE JOINING OR NILSTAGE MARKING AND CUTTING STAGE BENDING OR NIL STAGE
I

AREA: PARALLEL
PARTS FROM PLATE

AREA NON-PARALLEL
PARTS FROM PLATE

AREA INTERNAL
PARTS FROM PLATE

AREA: PARTS FROM

ROLLED SHAPES

FIGURE 3-3: Part Fabrication The parts shown are typical. Each corresponds to a hull construction zone which cannot be subdivided.

16
 by stage, after having performed groupings by zone,
area, and similarities in part types and sizes, as follows:
- plate joining or nil
- marking and cutting
I
For large quantities of parts to be bent, problem area can
be subdivided by the resources available such as:
- universal press (single-axis shallow curvature)
- press with die (small parts, e.g., bracket flange)
- mechanized line-heating (double-axis shallow cur- AREA: SUB-BLOCK PART
vature)
- manual line-heating (double-axis deep curvature and
correction of any part). FIGURE 3-4: Part Assembly The weldments shown are typical
sub-block parts.
A face plate for example, is marked and nested on a plate
with other such parts that can be cut in one pass by a
multiflame planer. Those which require different curvatures 3.1.3 Sub-block Assembly
are then grouped together provided they can be processed by
a press without need to change dies. Face plates, including Sub-block Assembly appears in the third manufacturing
those that are to remain straight, are then grouped per block level of Figures 3-1 and 3-2. A zone is generally a weldment,
and distributed to succeeding work packages. consisting of a number of fabricated and/or assembled parts,
which will eventually be fitted on a panel during block
Typical groupings of work packages for parts fabrication assembly.
are illustrated in Figure 3-3.
Typical work packages are grouped by area for:
3.1.2 Part Assembly
- similar size in large quantities, e.g., large transverse
The second manufacturing level is special and outside the frames, girders, floors, etc.
main work flow. Its typical work packages are grouped by
area as: . similar size in small quantities.

- built-up part, e.g., tee- or cl-section longitudinals of Subassemblies falling within the first problem area regard-
large or unusual sections not rolled by mills, and less of their design differences can be mass-produced size-by-
size on process lanes with appropriate facilities, e.g., con-
- sub-block part, e.g., a part which is a weldment, veyors. Those in the second category require a job-shop ap-
typically consisting of a bracket fitted with a face plate proach because of:
or flat bar, as shown in Figure 3-4.
- insufficient numbers for any one size, and
The sub-block part concept is a planning technique for
shifting work from the sub-block assembly level, where ex- - different working times required for the different sizes
cessive work volume is otherwise probable, to an earlier that are normally encountered.
level outside the main work flow. Undertaken with simple
facilities as compared to those required for sub-block Stage classifications are:
assembly (e.g. mechanized conveyors), manufacturing sub- - assembly
block parts in the part assembly level is a means of bal-
ancing work and conserving resources. Further, as such - back assembly or nil.
parts are only used in sub-blocks, zone identification
employs the same code as for sub-blocks; see Figure 3-2. During back assembly, parts and/or assembled parts are fit-
ted on the opposite side of a marked surface of a main part
Stage is divided into: (it is additional fitting after overturning).
. assembly Examples are shown in Figure 3-5.
- bending or nil.

1
"Nil" means no product aspect ewists; thus it is left blank for its categorization and coding and is skipped in a process flow.

17
 SUB-BLOCK ASSEMBLY LEVEL

ASSEMBLY STAGE

AREA: SIMILAR SIZE IN LARGE QUANTITY AREA: SIMILAR SIZE IN SMALL QUANTITY

FIGURE 3-5: Sub-block Assembly Typical interim products and their problem area classifications are shown.

3.1.4 Semi-block and Block Assembly 2 and Grand-block This level, which is outside the main flow, is needed when
zone divisions from a large ship are applied to a small ship
in order to quickly achieve a nearly uniform work balance.
A block is the key zone for hull construction and as indi- The ensuing smaller-size blocks are joined into grand blocks
cated in Figures 3-1 and 3-2 it may, depending on circum- in order to minimize the working time needed in a building
stances, be planned in three assembly levels, i.e.: dock for erection.
- semi-block assembly, The zone of the three levels ranges from block to ship as
shown in Figure 3-2.
- block assembly, and
The semi-block asssembly level is divided by problem area
- grand-block joining. in the same manner as for the sub-block level. Most semi-
Only block assembly is in the main work flow. The other blocks are rather small in size and two dimensional so that
levels provide useful planning alternatives. All are planned they can be produced in a sub-block assembly facility. In
in accordance with the concept of grouping work packages planning work, this should be the point of divergence for
by area and stage. separating semi-block assembly from block assembly. The
grouping by stage for semi-blocks is also the same as for
A semi-block serves the need to assemble a partial zone sub-blocks as also shown in Figure 3-2.
separate from a key zone (block) whenever a block would
otherwise disrupt work flow. When a semi-block is The block assembly level is divided by problem area using:
employed, the block assembly level is where it joins its - distinguishing features of the panel needed as a base
mother block which was processed in the main work for attaching parts, assembled parts and/or sub-
flow. blocks, and
Grand-block joining, i.e., the combining of a few blocks to - uniformity of working times required.
create a larger block at a site near a building dock:
These characteristics determine whether:
- reduces the working time needed for erection in a
building dock, - platens or pin jigs are required, and whether
- produces a shape that is more stable for erection pur- - blocks are to be assembled in a flow where work starts
poses, and and completes in unison.
- provides more spacious area and volume which Because of their uniqueness, superstructure blocks are ad-
facilitates further on-block outfitting and painting. dressed separately.

18
 Pertinent problem area divisions and necessary defini- At the grand-b[ock joining level only three classifications
tions are: by area are normally required:
- flat (working time is uniform and there are no projec- - flat panel
tions from panel undersides which require special jigs
or which would interfere with platens equipped with - curved panel
conveyors)
- superstructure.
- special
flat (sometimes called semi-flat; working time is
non-uniform and/or unique jigs or supports are needed) Stage at this level is subdivided into:

- curved (working time is uniform) - joining or nil

- special curved (working time is non-uniform and/or - pre-erection or nil

unique jigs or supports are needed)
- back pre-erection or nil.
- superstructure. For very small ships, the pre-erection stage provides for
Special-flat and special-curved blocks, because of variations joining grand blocks in order to create grand-grand blocks.
in working times and/or needed jigs, are not assembled in Back pre-erection provides for further assembly work after
facilities designed for work flow where starts and comple- turnover, e.g., attaching bulwarks, chain pipes, etc.
tions are in unison. Thus, they require a job-shop approach. Figures 3-7 through 3-17 show relationships between
If the quantity of blocks to be produced is small, less than semi-blocks, blocks and grand blocks that were actually
five problem area classifications should be considered. employed for construction of a 22,000 deadweight-ton
Typical classifications by problem area are illustrated in general-cargo carrier. It was purposely selected as the basis
Figure 3-6. for illustration because it is one of a type, i.e., it was not a
ship of a standard series.
As shown in Figure 3-2, the block assembly level is phased
by stage as follows: 3.1.5 Hull Erection

- plate joining or nil Erection is the final level of the hull construction where
the entire hull is the zone. Problem areas at this level are:
- framing or nil
- fore hull
- assembly
- cargo hold
- back assembly or nil.
- engine room
The assembly stage at the block level is for combining a
panel with parts, assembled parts and/or sub-blocks and - aft hull
sometimes a semi-block. When many blocks are required it
could be useful to add further classifications by problem - superstructure.
area based upon internal framing, i.e., Stage is simply divided into:
. egg box
- erection
- longitudinals attached before webs - test.
- longitudinals attached after webs Tests at this level, such as tank tests, are independent of
. other. erection and are distinguished by the size of their work
packages as compared with the tests and inspections of
other levels. The latter tests and inspections are included in
the packages of each level and respectively implemented at
the time when each interim product is being finished.

19
A. AREA: FLAT B. AREA: FLAT
STAGE: FRAMING (EGG BOX) STAGE: ASSEMBLY (STARTING)

c. AREA: FLAT D. AREA: SPECIAL FLAT (NON-UNIFORM WORK CONTENT)

STAGE: ASSEMBLY (COMPLETING) STAGE: ASSEMBLY (OFF FLOW)

E. AREA: CURVED F. AREA SPECIAL CURVED (NON-UNIFORM WORK CONTENT)

STAG: ASSEMBLY STAGE ASSEMBLY (OFF FLOW)

FIGURE 3-6 Block Assembly Level Typical problem area and stage classifications.

20
21
 BLOCK ASSEMBLY LEVEL

PLATE JOINING STAGE

I
FRAMING STAGE ASSEMBLY STAGE
I

BLOCK ASSEMBLY LEVEL

GRAND BLOCK JOINING LEVEL
I
ASSEMBLY STAGE

PANEL + PARTS+ SUB-BLOCKS =

FIGURE 3 8 FLAT
23
+
25
27
 BLOCK ASSEMBLY LEVEL

I PLATE JOINING STAGE

I
ASSEMBLY STAGE

GRAND. BLOCK JOINING LEVEL

JOINING STAGE

FIGURE 316: Block Assembly and Grand-block Joining Bottom of Engine Room, The engine-room bottom block is classified by area as SPECIAL FLAT because of its work content and the
projection of the main-engine foundation.
 BLOCK ASSEMBLY LEVEL

ASSEMBLY STAGE

FIGURE 3-17: Block Assembly Side Shell of Engine Room.

31
3.2 Zone Outfitting Method On-board, is a division or zone for packaging work for
the assembly of fittings during hull erection and subsequent
The Zone Outfitting Method (ZOFM) is a natural conse- to launching. An ideal zone for outfitting on-board avoids
quence of the Hull Block Construction Method (HBCM) the need to disperse and/or continuously relocate resources,
because both employ the same logic. Shipyards which particularly workers. In general, compartments defined by
employ ZOFM assemble most outfit components indepen- shell, bulkhead, deck, or other partitions are suitable. Even
dent of or on hull blocks. entire cargo holds, tanks, engine rooms, superstructure
decks, or weather decks can be useful zones for final outfit-
Just as for hull construction, zone divisions from a ting on-board stages.
similar previously-built ship are tailored to fit a new con-
tract design. The coded significance in work package ZOFM planners addressing the need to breakdown outfit
numbers remains essentially unchanged. Thus, everyone in- work into packages:
volved in design, material definition, procurement, fabrica-
tion and assembly, has knowledge of how outfitting is to - first, consider outfit components for all systems in an
progress. on-board zone and try to maximize the amount fitted
into on-block zones, and
3.2.1 Zone by Area by Stage
- next, consider outfit components for all systems in an
HBCM planners define interim products starting with a on-block zone and try to maximize the amount fitted
hull as a zone, thence subdividing it into block zones which into on-unit zones.
in turn are divided into sub-block zones and so on. The
process is completed when zones are defined that cannot be Their objective is to minimize outfit work during and after
further subdivided, i.e., zones which correspond to parts. hull erection.
The nature of any of these zones associates it with a specific
manufacturing level. This regimentation is natural for hull As in HBCM, maximum productivity is achieved when:
construction but not so for outfitting.
- work is equally apportioned to work packages grouped
ZOFM planners have to consider, even participate in by product aspects at all manufacturing levels, and
devising, block zones for hull construction. Elsewhere, they
should be free to devise zones which best suit the work at - uniform and coordinated work flows are maintained
hand. Their outfit zones at one manufacturing level can be by shifting workers, overtime and/or short-term
independent of zones in previous or succeeding levels. For schedule adjustments.
example, in hull construction zone sizes increase as manu- Work packages are optimally sized when their work con-
facturing progresses. Whereas outfitting zones at earlier tents are nearly uniform. The balancing of work among
stages, for control purposes, could be larger and have no packages requires consideration of groups of components
common boundaries with zones defined for subsequent by the product aspects: zone, area and stage. This balancing
stages. Overlapping zones are of no consequence provided of work strongly affects other factors, such as, the alloca-
they are designated for different stages. Thus, while there is tion of manpower and scheduling.
greater freedom in defining outfit zones, specifying zone by
area by stage affords absolute control of work even in a con- Other important objectives of ZOFM planners include:
- shifting fitting work, especially welding, from dif-
3.2.2 On-unit, On-block and On-board Outfitting ficult positions to easier down hand positions thus
reducing both the man-hours needed and the dura-
On-unit refers to a zone which defines an arrangement of tions required,
fittings to be assembled in-house independent of hull struc-
ture. Assembly of such fittings is called outfitting on-unit. It - selecting and designing components so as to organize
enhances safety and reduces both required manhours and groups of fittings that can be assembled on-unit, i.e.,
durations which would otherwise be allocated to outfitting independent of hull structure, thus simplifying plan-
on-block and on-board. ning and scheduling by keeping the different types of
work separate at the earliest manufacturing levels,
On-block for outfitting purposes refers to a rather flexible
relationship between block and zone. The assembly of fit- - transferring work from enclosed, narrow, high or
tings on any structural subassembly, (e.g., semi-blocks, otherwise unsafe locations to open, spacious and low
blocks and grand blocks) is referred to as outfitting on- places thus maximizing safety and access for material
block. The zone applies to that region being outfitted. The handling, and
fitting arrangement on the ceiling of a block set upside down
is a zone. Following block turnover, the fitting arrangement
on deck is another zone.

In IHI shipyards the word pallet is used to designate a zone per area per stage. Pallets sequenced in their order for execution comprise the outfitting
game Plan. Adapting a pallet list from a previously instructed ship avoids much reinvention-of-the-wheel. It is a singular means for shipyard managers
to control the application of prior experience as compared to dependence upon experiences vested in design, material and production people acting in-
dependently. Further, the unqualified success of zone by area by stage control of outfitting introduces the prospect of significant cost savings if PWBS is ap-
plied to very large ship repair or conversion projects.

33
 I COMPONENT
PROCUREMENT II COMPONENT
PROCUREMENT I

FIGURE 3-18: Typical Manufacturing Levels for the Zone Outfitting Method (ZOFM). For maximum productivity the main work flow should be
uniform.

34
 PRODUCT ASPECTS
PLAN MF'G
LEVEL LEVEL
ZONE AREA
I STAGE ZONE AREA STAGE

1 6

2 5 NIL

3 4 BLOCK NIL

ON-CEILING FlTTING

4 3 NIL NIL

LARGE-
UNIT SIZE
UNIT

5 2

I ASSEMBLY

6 1 COMPONENT

FIGURE 3-19: Typical classifications of product aspects for the Zone Outfitting Method (ZOFM). Specialty designates deeck, accommodation,
machinery or electrical.
 - planning simultaneous execution of many work 3.2.3 Component Procurement
packages thus decreasing the overall fitting duration.
As shown in Figures 3-18 and 3-19, component procure-
Considering these requirements it is practical to plan out- ment is the initial manufacturing level. It produces interim
fitting in six manufacturing levels as shown in Figure 3-18. products or zones for outfitting for which no further sub-
The component, unit and grand unit levels are executed in- division is needed by the shipyard. Typical work packages
dependent of the hull structural zones they will eventually be and material requisitions are grouped by zone and by area to
fitted in. The on-block and on-board levels are, of course, address the separate procurement problems, i.e.,
entirely dependent on structural entities.
- in-house manufacturing
In order to minimize the impact of these dependencies,
fitting components should be assembled into units and - outside manufacturing
grand units as much as possible provided that they are truly
independent, i.e., rigid and stable without extraordinary - purchasing.
temporary reinforcements or supports. This approach is the These problem areas are - further classified by re-
primary means for shortening the durations required for on- quirements for manufacturing drawings, purchase order
block and on-board outfitting. specifications and raw materials as shown in Figure 3-20.
Within each level other than that for grand units, the After having performed groupings by zone, area and
resulting proposed interim products are examined for similarities in component types and sizes, further grouping
similarities in their product aspects. Then, as in the HBCM, is made by stage as follows:
they are grouped by similarities in order to:
- design and material preparation or nil
- further modularize the production process,
- manufacturing or nil
- justify expensive but highly efficient facilities, and
- palletizing.
- achieve manpower savings.
The palletized components are assigned to their respective
Typical groupings by product aspects are shown in Figure work packages for subsequent manufacturing levels.
3-19. Horizontal combinations characterize the various types
of work packages that are requisite and sufficient for the 3.2.4 Unit Assembly and Grand-unit Joining
work to be performed for each level. Vertical combinations
of the various work package types denote the process lanes Just as a block is a key zone for hull construction, a unit is
for outfitting work flow which correspond to those simply a key zone for outfitting which, as illustrated in Figures 3-18
illustrated in Figure 2-4. and 3-19, may only require a single manufacturing level.
Productivity is enhanced when units are planned which have
As the implementation of ZOFM progresses, the need similarities in working hours needed for assembly, numbers
becomes greater for balanced planning and scheduling and of components, volume, weight, design standards, etc.
cooperation between hull construction, outfitting and paint- Grouping by such similarities facilitate organizing and
ing planners. uniformly loading process flow lanes.

AREA SUBDIVISIONS
AREA
DESIGN TO FURNISH MATERIAL TO BE FURNISHED

IN-HOUSE MANUFACTURING YES

MANUFACTURING DRAWING

OUTSIDE MANUFACTURING
YES/NO
MANUFACTURING DRAWING

PURCHASE ORDER
PURCHASING SPECIFICATION SELDOM/NO

FIGURE 3-20. Problem area subdivisions for design and material preparations. When preparations for outside manufacturing are the same as for in-
house, a shipyard retains much control, avoids vendor drawing approvals and makes eligible many small firms who do not have design or purchasing
departments.

36
 As indicated in Figure 3-21, unit sizes vary significantly. Classification by area is limited to:
Therefore two problem areas are designated at the unit
assembly level, i.e.: - large size unit or nil

- large size Phasing by stage is:

- small size. - joining
The distinction is by lift capacity, e.g., units that weigh - welding or nil.
more or less than one ton. If many small units are planned
for assembly of larger units, another manufacturing level The welding stage applies only if there are special or exten-
may be included for sub-unit assembly. sive welding requirements.

Problem areas at the unit level, could be further subdi- 3.2.5 On-block Outfitting
vided into: Outfitting components, units and grand units are
- machinery unit (machinery combined with all adja- sometimes fitted in a block zone defined for hull construc-
cent components including foundation, pipe pieces, tion. However, when they are to be fitted to ceilings, blocks
valves, supports, walkways, ladders, etc.) should be inverted because fitting down hand enhances safe-
ty and efficiency. Therefore, the outfit zone for a block set
- pipe unit (no machinery, just pipe pieces combined upside down encompasses everything fitted to the ceiling.
with valves, supports, walkways, etc.), and Following block turnover, the outfit zone encompasses the
components, units and/or grand units fitted to the floor.
- other (hatch covers with coaming, masts, etc.) Turnover represents a change in stage. Specifying a zone per
stage for each side suffices for absolute control of on-block
Stage for unit assembly is divided as: outfitting.
- assembly Similarly, outfit items should be fitted in the zone of a
- welding or nil. double-bottom block before its tank top panel is installed,
Then at a later stage, a different outfit zone encompasses
The welding stage applies when extensive or special welding everything to be fitted to the tanktop. Clearly the primary
requirements exist as welding incident to routine unit goals of this manufacturing level are to outfit ceilings and
double bottoms when blocks can be manipulated to provide
assembly is performed by fitters during the preceding ideal access.
assembly stage.
Competitive shipyards have developed machinery units Typically, the divisions by area address problems which
into standard arrangements which are often adapted for are inherently different so that each work package for out-
various types and sizes of ships. As required design and fitting on-block can be assigned to the appropriate team of
assembly specialists for deck, accommodations, machinery
material definition is already available, much planning for a or electrical. These classifications are further subdivided by
standard machinery unit can progress just as if it was a the quantities of items to be fitted resulting in the following
single component. A typical standard machinery unit is eight problem area divisions:
shown in Figure 3-22. Pipe units are generally unique
because they reflect the pipe passages and details peculiar to - deck: large quantity or small quantity
each type and/or size Ship even among standard series ships
- accommodation large quantity or small quantity
A variety of units are shown in Figures 3-23 through 3-26. - machinery: large quantity or small quantity 6
The grand unit joining level primarily provides for com- - electrical: large quantity or small quantity.
bining two or more units in order to:
When the items to be fitted comprise a small quantity per
- reduce the working times needed for fitting on-block block, outfit work can be performed at the site where the
and on-board, and block was assembled. When a large quantity is planned, the
completed block should be transferred to an indoor or out-
- produce more stable entities for erection purposes. door region designated for outfitting in accordance with an
on-flow concept, i.e., where work packages start and com-
plete in unison.

5
See Design Modules, Patterns and Panels, and Arrangement Zones in Outfit Planning - December 1979 by C. S. Jonson and L. D. Chirillo for the Na-
tional Shipbuilding Research Program, pp 26-33.
6
Pipe assembly problems around machinery are more similar to other machinery space assembly problems than they are to problems for assembling pipe in ac-
commodation spaces. The great effectiveness of organizing people into design groups, fabrication shops or assembly sections, each specialized for deck, ac-
commodation, or machinery, has been proven by the worlds most competitive shipbuilders for control of both design and production. Each team within such
organizations possesses a mix of pertinent and requisite skills.

37
HFIGURE 3-21: Unit sizes vary significantly. Top: Engine-room tank-top unit for a 100,000 deadweight-ton diesel-propelled tanker. Bottom /eft: Heat ex-
changer, foundations, pipe pieces, etc., incorporated as a unit. Bottom right: The author showing a small unit consisting of pneumatic tubing and sup-
ports.

38
39
 Much outfit work at this level progresses simultaneously
with hull erection as shown schematically in Figure 2-4.
Ideally, outfitting on-board should be limited to:
fitting components, units and/or grand units that are
too large or too heavy to fit on-block (e.g., main
engines, diesel generators, most units and grand units
for engine room tank top, etc.),
fitting fragile and weather-vulnerable components
that could be damaged if installed before compart-
ments are enclosed (e.g., joinery, insulation, elec-
tronic equipment, etc.), and
connecting between components, units and grand
units that are either fitted-on-block or on-board.
One useful method of classifying work packages by prob-
lem area simultaneously addresses the teams of specialists
needed, work volume sizes, and skill requirements in
accordance with the following twelve categories:
- deck: similar work in small volume, high volume, or
high skill

FIGURE 3-26: A Radar Mast and a Foremast with all components, - accommodation: similar work in small volume, high
including electrical, being assembled as units. Zone unit. Area volume, or high skill
large size unit. Stage: assembly. If the masts were hull-construction
blocks, manufactured in-house, the fitting work would have been - machinery similar work in small volume, high volume,
designated on block. or high skill
- electrical similar work in small volume, high volume,
or high skill.
Separation by stage is in accordance with the following se-
quence which reflects block turnover: Variety work in small volume should be encompassed in
an on-board zone for execution by a team having the needed
- on-ceiling fitting variety of skills. Variety work in large volume should be
divided by similarities in components and units or sets of
- on-ceiling welding or nil components and/or units. Zones for such problem areas
- on-floor fitting should not be too long, wide, scattered or otherwise un-
favorable for execution and supervision of work. At the
- on-floor welding or nil. same time planners must regard the need for high-skill fit-
ting work required in many ship compartments. In such
The welding stages apply only for special or extensive cases, large zones grouped by specific problem areas could
welding requirements. On-ceiling fitting and welding usually be most beneficial.
is optimum for blocks. However, most on-floor fitting and
welding takes place after on-ceiling outfitting is completed, Stage for on-board outfitting could be divided into:
blocks are turned over, and blocks are joined to create
grand-blocks. In order to simplify the erection schedule and - open-space (blue sky) fitting
minimize duration in the building dock, such on-floor out- - open-space (blue sky) welding or nil
fitting should include all grand units, units and components
to the maximum extent possible. - closed-space fitting
Examples of outfitting on-block are shown in Figures - closed-space welding or nil.
3-27 and 3-28.
The welding stages apply only if there is special or extensive
3.2.6 On-board Outfitting welding to be done. Open-space fitting and welding should
be completed before closures imposed by the continuing
Outfitting on-board seems at first to be the same as con- erection of blocks in order to take full advantage of ideal ac-
ventional outfitting. However, the work required is suscepti- cess. Therefore, such work shouId be incorporated in the
ble to the same analyses as for on-unit and on-block outfit- erection schedule. Closed-space fitting and welding activities
ting. As a consequence, zone/area/stage control is ap- should be minimized as much as practicable as they require
plicable.

40
 FIGURE 3-27: On-block Outfitting in Pipe Tunnel Below Cargo
Hold. FIGUIRE 3-28: Engine-room Tank-top Components Fitted On-
Block. Sometimes, as in this example, where there is sufficient lift
capacity and reserved time, fitting on-block is just as efficient as fit-
ting on-unit.

more working hours, more transportation services, longer

durations, etc.
The on-board outfitting level uses on-board divisons as
zones which are subdivisions of the ship as a zone as for the
erection level in hull construction work.
3.2.7 Operation and Test
The operation and test level applies to work necessary for
assessing the performance of each ships functional systems.
At this level zone is the entire ship.
Problems are grouped to match teams of specialists for
the following areas:
- deck
- accommodation
- machinery
- electrical.
Further, operation and test is regarded as a single stage.
Thus, at this level, work is packaged by one or more systems
within each of the problem areas defined for the specialist
teams. It is the traditional method for planning operation
and test work.

41
3.3 Zone Painting Method ture are usually excluded. Thus, useful divisions by problem
area are:
The Zone Painting Method (ZPTM) is a natural extension
of the logic employed in both HBCM and ZOFM. It - plate
transfers much painting work, traditionally performed in a
building dock or at an outfit pier, to preceding manufactur- - shapes and other.
ing levels by integrating painting with hull construction and
outfitting processes. Painting is treated as another assembly The applicable stage categories are:
process that ascends through manufacturing levels as - shot blasting
typically shown in Figure 3-29. There are certain prere-
quisites for successful application: - painting.
- the painting interval between one coat and a next coat 3.3.2 Primer Painting
must be shorter than the allowable exposure period
for the former, This level is for application of an anti-corrosive, including
epoxy and inorganic zinc-silicate, which is the first coat ap-
- each hull block should be virtually finished in order to plied to a component or an on-board division (as defined in
minimize surface preparation and painting rework ZOFM), or a block (as defined in HBCM). These constitute
caused by further cutting, fitting and welding, and the zone categories.
- the shop primers applied to plates and shapes should Problem area is grouped by:
- paint type, i.e., conventional, epoxy, inorganic zinc-
The main planning objectives for shifting paint related silicate, etc.
work to the manufacturing levels prior to on-board painting
are to: - number of coats
- shift positions from overhead to down hand or at the - type of zone.
minimum to vertical, from high to low places, and
from confined to readily accessible places, The latter further classifies each component, block or on-
board division, by problem area to anticipate:
- facilitate the use of temperature and humidity con-
trolled buildings, especially for sophisticated coatings, - burn or wear damage of painted surfaces during
HBCM and ZOFM succeeding manufacturing levels,
- provide safer environments without extraordinary
devices that would encumber workers, - difficulty if there is a change in painting conditions,
e.g., down hand to overhead, low to high, spacious to
- prevent in-process rust and associated rework, confined, etc., and
- minimize scaffolds needed only for surface prepara- - need to maintain appearance.
tion and painting, and
These considerations again demonstrate that ZPTM, ZOFM
- level load work throughout the entire shipbuilding and HBCM planning must be coordinated. Painting plan-
process in order to avoid large work volumes in the ners have to consider the foregoing for each zone at all
final stages that could jeapordize scheduled delivery. ZOFM and HBCM manufacturing levels.
Typical grouping of paint related work packages by their Stage at this level is separated into the following phases:
product aspects are contained in Figure 3-30. Horizontal
combinations characterize the various types of work - surface preparation
packages that are requisite and sufficient for the work to be
performed for each level. Vertical combinations denote the - cleaning
process lanes for painting work flow. Obviously, there is - touch UP
need for balanced planning and scheduling and cooperation
between hull construction, outfitting and painting planners. - painting
Examples of paint systems applied in accordance with
ZPTM are contained in Figure 3-31. - surface preparation after block turnover or nil
3.3.1 Shop Primer Painting - cleaning after block turnover or nil
This manufacturing level applies to surface preparation - touch up after block turnover or nil
for and application of shop primer to raw materials before
they are processed to create structural parts or outfit com- - painting after block turnover or nil.
ponents. Items which are to be pickled after their manufac-
7
In order to fulfill these prerequisites hull construction, outfitting and painting planners have to work together to shorten the durations between the shop
primer and primer levels and between the primer and finish under-coat levels. And, managers have to ensure effective accuracy control.

43
FIGURE 3-29: Typical Manufacturing Levels for the Zone Painting Method (ZPTM).

44
 MATERIAL COMPONENT
I UNIT TO BE FITTED AT BOARD OUTFITTING

COMPONENT FITTED ON.BLOCK AT ON-BLOCK OUTFITTING

BLOCK
NIL
NIL
PAINTING ON-BOARD DIVISION

PLATE PAINT MATERIAL PAINT MATERIAL

PAINT MATERIAL NUMBER OF COATS NUMBER OF COATS/
NUMBER OF COATS TYPE OF ZONE/ TYPE OF ZONE/
TYPE OF ZONE PAINT SCAFFOLD PAINT SCAFFOLD
SHAPES REQUIRED OR NOT REQUIRED OR NOT
AND OTHER

FINISH UNDER-COAT
ZONE CODE ZONE CODE ZONE CODE
ZONE CODE
PAINT CODE/ PAINT CODE/ PAINT CODE/
MATERIAL CODE NUMBER OF COATS NUMBER OF COATS NUMBER OF COATS

STAGE CODE OF HBCM, ZOFM, OR PPFM

 MANUFACTURING LEVEL PAINT SYSTEM A PAINT SYSTEM B

FINISH COLOR COLOR

FINISH UNDER-COAT COLOR COLORED PRIMER

i I I I
PRIMER
PRIMER NUMBER OF COATS PRIMER
PER SPECIFICATION

SHOP PRIMER SHOP PRIMER SHOP PRIMER

FIGURE 3-31: Examples of paint systems applied in accordance with the Zone Painting Method (ZPTM). Finish under-coat and finish are not applied
everywhere, i.e., they are applied only where specified.
1 I

The work at this manufacturing level is coordinated with 3.3.4 Finish Painting
ZOFM so that primer is applied just before the on-ceiling
fitting stage and, following bIock turnover, just before the Finish painting is the final manufacturing level in ZPTM.
on-floor fitting stage. Nil applies to blocks that are not Zone, area and stage classifications are the same as in the
turned over. final under-coat level except that:
3.3.3 Finish Under-coat Painting - stages associated with block turnover are not ap-
plicable, and
This is the semi-final manufacturing level for paint ap-
plication. Useful zone classifications are - nil in the final stage painting or nil means a
finish coat will not be applied, as in the case of epoxy.
- components (big in size or which become relatively in-
accessible after fitting on-board such as masts, cargo
booms, undersides of hatch covers, etc.)
- units which are to be fitted on-board
- outfitted blocks
- on-board divisions
- nil (applicable if epoxy is specified).
Problem area divisions are:
- paint type
- number of coats
- type of zone (as described in Part 3.3.2 for the primer
painting level)
- scaffolding required only for painting or not.
The classification of work packages by stage is the same
as for the primer level.

46
3.4 integrated Hull Construction, Outfitting & Painting There is need for managers, deputy managers and fieId
engineers in assembly organizations who are college trained
The zone-oriented methods described in Parts 3.1, 3.2 or who have otherwise obtained abiIity to think analytically
and 3.3, i.e., the: about industrial engineering matters. There is also need for
- Hull Block Construction Method (HBCM), extraordinary leadership to counter the tendency of people
to favor one type of work at the expense of others.
- Zone Outfitting Method (ZOFM), and
Integrated HBCM, ZOFM, and ZPTM for a 22,000
- Zone Painting Method (ZPTM), deadweight-ton multi-purpose cargo carrier, which is not
one of a standard series, is illustrated in Figures 3-32
were developed from the same logic. But just understanding through 3-56. Typically, all work shown was performed dur-
the logic and learning application principles are not enough. ing a single 8-hour shift per workday. Sometimes nominal
overtime is appIied, usuaIIy for painting.

FIGURE 3-32: Grand Block, upside down, of Center Deck and

Center Transverse Bulkhead (similar to grand block in Figure 3-10).
Temporary staging is fitted to facilitate erection welding. Most of the
primer coat was applied on block before grand-block joining. After
erection the bottom third will be readily accessible for application of
the remaining primer coat.

47
FIGURE 3-33: Grand Block of Side Shell, Top Side Tank, Transverse Hopper, and Side Transverse Bulkhead of Cargo Hold. Temporary staging is in
place to facilitate erection welding. Primer has been applied to all surfaces except the bottom third which will be readily accessible after erection.

FIGURE 3-34: Same Grand Block as shown in Figure 3-33. The exposed shop primer, limited to the Transverse Hopper surface in this view, is in good
condition.

48
49
50
FIGURE 3-39: On-block Outfitting Level. The right-side block is the same one shown in Figures 3-37 and 3-38. Zone and area are as described in Figure
3-37. Stage: on-floor fitting. This on-floor work is progressing next to the building dock. A light crane, of the type used for constructing buildings, is suffi-
cient.

FIGURE 3-40: Erecting the outfitted blocks shown in Figures 3-37,3-38 and 3-39. These comprise the Ist Engine-room Flat.

51
FIGURE 3-41: On-block Outfitting Level. Zone: half of a superstructure deck. Area: accommodation components in large quantity (on flow). Stage: on-
ceiling fitting. Red primer was applied just before outfitting started.

FIGURE 3-42: On-block Outfitting Level. Zone, area and stage are the same as in Figure 3-41. The block is different.

52
FIGURE 3-43: Grand-block Joining Level. Zone: aft half of superstructure. Area: superstructure. Stage: pre-erection (this designates grand grand-block
joining).

FIGURE 3-44: Erection Level. Keel laying Plus 11 workdays.

53
 FIGURE 3-45: Erection Level. Landing the block shown in Figure 3-28. Keel laying plus 13 workdays.

FIGURE 3-46: Erection Level. Engine-room tank-top blocks are erected. Keel laying plus 15 workdays.

54
FIGURE 3-47: Erection Level. Blocks similar to those shown in Figures 3-37 through 3-40 comprise much of the 2nd Engine-room Flat. The covered con-
trol console forward and three covered diesel-generators aft, were landed during an on-open-space fitting stage (blue sky fitting). Keel laying plus 19
workdays.

F1GURE 3-48: Erection Level. Landing the Cant Block. Finish under-coat painting was applied to ceilings of main-deck blocks before they were turned
over. Keel laying plus 22 workdays.

55
FIGURE 3-49: Erection Level. Landing the grand block shown in Figures 3-33 and 3-34. Keel laying plus 22 workdays.

FIGURE 3-50: Erection Level. Keel laying plus 24 workdays.

56
FIGURE 3-51: Erection Level. Landing the main engine. Stage: on-open-space fitting (blue sky fitting). Keel laying plus 24 workdays.
II
I

FIGURE 3-52: Erection Level. Landing the aft superstructure half (a grand-grand block; see Figure 3-43). Keel laying plus 27 workdays.

57
FIGURE 3-53: Erection Level. Finish paint was applied to the undersides of hatch-covers before the hatch cover/coaming assembly was fitted on-board.
Keel plus 28 workdays.

FIGURE 3-54: Erection Level. Aft half of superstructure being lifted. Finish under-coat painting has been completed on all vertical surfaces. Keel plus 29
workdays.

58
 FIGURE 3-55: Erection Level. Landing the aft half of superstructure on board. As described in Figure 3-43 it is a grand grand-block. Keel PIUS 29
workdays.
1
I
I

FIGURE 3-56: Operation and Test Level. IRON STURT Ship No. 2728, IHI Kure Shipyard. LBP 163.Om; B 22.9m; D 13.6m; d 10.0m;
DWT 22,093 metric HP 9000. Start fabrication-18 September 1978; keel laying-5 December launching-9 February (43 workdays in building
dock; shipyard was closed for 1 January holiday week); delivery 27 April 1979.

59
 4.0 PIPE PIECE FAMILY MANUFACTURING

Just the engine room of a 22,000 deadweight-ton diesel- A further distinction is that PPFM is a fabrication proc-
propelled ship contains about 3,600 pipe pieces. Many dif- ess as compared to the assembly processes which character-
ferences among them do not readily disclose commonalities ize HBCM, ZOFM and ZPTM. Typically, PPFM is applied
that are useful for planning their manufacture. Group in the seven manufacturing levels presented in Figure 4-1.
Technology (GT) is a philosophy applied by competitive The accompanying product aspects in Figure 4-2 show that
shipbuilders to systematically classify pipe pieces into the most important considerations for grouping proposed
groups or families having design and manufacturing at- pipe pieces by problem area must take into account
tributes which are sufficiently similar to make batch similarities in:
manufacturing practical. The process is called Pipe Piece
Family Manufacturing (PPFM). - material specified (steel, copper, polyvinylchloride,
etc.)
The collection of seemingly different pipe pieces into such
families avoids laborious job-shop type planning, sched- - bore size
uling and manufacturing. Instead, different pieces within a
family are designated for the same machines and tooling - shape, i.e., straight or bent
setups which are arranged in a rationalized process lane. The - length
benefits include greater utilization of the same tool setups
and simpler material handling requirements between the - other factors.
work stages in each process lane. The manifestly clear stage
by stage progression of developing pipe pieces within such Horizontal combinations of the product aspects charac-
work flow lanes greatly enhances production control. Fur- terize the various types of work that are requisite and suffi-
ther, the separation by stages permits the switching of work cient for the work to be performed at each level. Vertical
flow from one process lane to another without diminishing combinations of the various work package types denote the
control. process lanes for pipe-piece manufacturing. Typical area
subdivisions for only the pipe fabrication, pipe piece
In PPFM the key zone is that which defines a planned assembly and pipe piece joining levels are presented in
pipe piece. It is an optimum division of a pipe line, usually Figure 4-3.
consisting of:
The work packages, grouped by unique similarities at all
- cut pipe (including branch when applicable), levels facilitate:
- flanges, and/or - modularization of the fabrication processes, and
- elbows, sleeves, tees, etc.' - justification for expensive but highly efficient
facilities.
A finished pipe piece appears in Figures 3-17 and 3-18 as a
component, from the in - house manufacturing area Where applied for either manual or automatic fabrication
within the lowest ZOFM manufacturing level, needed for of the variety of pipe pieces needed for ships, PPFM advan-
outfitting on unit, on block or on board. Thus, zone for tages are manifested by:
PPFM is different from that for HBCM, ZOFM and ZPTM
in that it is not derived from a hull block. Because of this - less rearrangement of jigs and tools,
difference, PPFM developed independently and is problem-
area oriented as distinguished from the zone orientations of - less variations in the work durations and manhours re-
HBCM, ZOFM and ZPTM. quired among the same type work packages,

In I HI shipyards electrical conduit pieces are regarded as pipe Pieces. Thus they are included in PPFM for their manufacture and in ZOFM for outfitting on-
unit, on-block and on-board just as if they were pipe pieces.

61
FIGURE 4-1: Typical Manufacturing Levels for the Pipe Piece Family Manufacturing Method (PPFM). Note that Palletizing is a manufacturing
level, i.e., each pipe piece is not complete until it is grouped with other required pipe pieces for a specific pallet (zone by area by stage).

62
 CODES
M'P'G
LEVEL LEVEL
AREA STAGE

1 7

2 6

3 5

4 4

5 3

6 2

7 1

FIGURE 4-2: Typical classifications of product aspects for the Pipe Piece Family Manufacturing Method (PPFM).

63
 MATERIAL
I X-RAY
OR NIL
MAIN OR
BRANCH
BORE
I STRAIGHT
OR BENT
I LENGTH

STRAIGHT

SMALL
BENT

MAIN

NIL BENT*

STEEL
SHORT
STRAIGHT
LONG**
LARGE
BENT*

BRANCH

x-RAY

NONFERROUS

PVC

OTHER

FIGURE 4-3: Problematic subdivisions for Pipe Fabrication, Pipe Piece Assembly, and Pipe Piece Joining Levels only. Blank spaces indicate that no
further subdivision exists. Medium and large bore pipe pieces to be bent can be assigned the same area subdivision. *Similarly, long, medium and
large bore pipe pieces can be assigned the same area subdivision.

MANUFACTURING WORKING HOURS NUMBER OF WORK PACKAGES

METHOD PER WORK PACKAGE PER WORK LOT

PPFM PRACTICALLY EQUAL MANY

HBCM VARIABLE ONE

ZOFM VARIABLE ONE

ZPTM VARIABLE ONE

FIGURE 4-4: Differences in Grouping PPFM Work as Compared to Other Manufacturing Methods.
 - better accuracy, and These area divisions and further subdivisions are incor-
porated in Figure 4-3.
- significant manpower savings.
Stages are phased for this level as:
4.1 Work Lots
- marking and cutting
It is impractical to control PPFM with one work package
per pipe piece because each is a relatively small job and a - bending of cut pipe or nil
wide variety and large number of pipe pieces are needed per
ship. Control by lot, i.e., a group of work packages, is far - machining or nil.
more effective provided certain principles are applied.
Preferably, bending should be deferred for the next
Within a processing lane the optimum durations required manufacturing level because it is easier to attach flanges or
for each work stage and the times required for material sleeves to straight pipe. The bending stage at the pipe
handling between stages, when summed, yield the overall fabrication level is onIy for those exceptional cases where
duration (lead time) required for a processing lane. Thus, flanges would lose their required orientations during bend-
minimizing the time required for material handling between ing. The machining process applies to the preparation of
stages also requires careful attention. Further, the durations pipe ends for welded or threaded joints.
required to manufacture all pipe pieces of a particular fami-
ly should be equal to each other. These principles permit the 4.4 Pipe Piece AssembIy
grouping of pipe pieces into a lot, i.e., an ideal mix from At this level flanges, sleeves, etc. are attached to cut pipe.
different families that will fully load a facility during a The finished assembly is the zone for a pipe piece except for
designated period (work day, work week, etc.). Thus, pipe main and branch subassemblies which are to be joined to
pieces which comprise a lot could be manufactured in any create a branch pipe piece during the next manufacturing
random sequence without diminishing control. A lot should level.
be sized by evaluating its Productivity Value (PV), par-
ticularly in consideration of its product resources.2 Area is subdivided as follows:
Figure 4-4 shows the basic differences between work - x-ray test or nil
grouped for PPFM as compared to work grouped for
HBCM, ZOFM and ZPTM. - short straight (5.5 meters or less) or bent
4.2 Material Receiving - long straight (over 5.5 meters).
Material receiving is the preparation, or first manufactur- Stage is phased in accordance with the following se-
ing, level as shown in Figures 4-1 and 4-2. Problem area is quence
grouped by types of material in accordance with the follow-
ing: - cut pipe joining or nil
- pipe - assembling
- flanges, elbows, tees, sleeves, etc. - welding or nil
Stage is simply: - finishing (grinding or machining) or nil
- material receiving. - bending or nil.
4.3 Pipe Fabrication Cut pipe joining is for producing a cut pipe longer than a
standard length of 5.5 meters. The welding and finishing
Pipe fabrication, the second manufacturing level, applies stages for main and branch subassemblies are deferred until
to processing of the pipe only, i.e., processing of the main after they are joined to create a branch pipe piece during the
part of the finished pipe-piece zone. Problem area is next manufacturing level. Grinding on non-tested pipe
grouped by: pieces and machining on pipe pieces to be x-rav tested or on
pipe for hydraulic systems, are deferred for accomplishment
- pipe material (steel, non-ferrous, polyvinylchloride, during the next manufacturing level.
etc.)
- main pipe or branch
- bore (small, medium, or large).

1
0ne very effective manually operated pipe shop posts a large calendar marked to show a color code assigned to each work week. A dab of paint marks each
pipe piece in process with a color assigned per work lot. Thus, anyone can readily determine if the lot in process is on schedule.

65
4.5 Pipe Piece Joining Area for coating is grouped by the different coating proc-
esses required.
The pipe piece joining level is for performing all joining
not previously accomplished. Typically, it would apply to Stage is phased as:
joining a main pipe subassembly to a branch pipe subas-
sembly or to other parts such as elbows, tees, sleeves, etc. - pickling or nil
Thus, the pipe pieces finished at this level are neither simple
or straight. - coating or nil.

Area is grouped identical to that for the previous 4.7 Palletizing

manufacturing level except that the main or branch sub- Palletizing is the final manufacturing level and provides
division shown in Figure 4-3 is not required. for the sorting of all pipe pieces (including electrical con-
Stage is phased as: duit) in accordance with structured material lists. Each list
establishes the pipe piece requirements for a specific pallet,
- marking and cutting or nil i.e., the pipe pieces required to outfit on-unit, on-block or
on-board during a specific stage.
- joining
Problem areas for palletizing are
- welding
- deck
- finishing (grinding or machining).
- accommodation
The marking and cutting stage at this level pertains to
boring a hole in a main pipe subassembly as preparation for - machinery.
joining a branch.
Stage is simply
4.6 Testing and Coating
- palletizing.
Testing and coating are performed at the places where
each pipe piece first constitutes a zone. This means places
where final work for pipe piece assembly (straight or simple)
and pipe piece joining (branches, etc) are performed.
Area for testing is grouped by the different test processes
required.
Stage is simply:
- testing or nil.

66
 5.0 PRODUCT RESOURCES

In PWBS, product resources are the inputs to work - Stock (S) - requisitioned for all ships in economic
packages, each of which can address a specific zone contain- quantities based upon past usage and forecasts of
ing portions of a number of systems. Thus, resources are future needs, and
defined by zone. For the purposes of estimating and early
material procurement, it is also necessary to identify - Allocated Stock (AS) - requisitioned per ship in the
material requirements by systems. quantity defined in design plus a contingent amount
added in material control based upon a history of
5.1 Material problems, and
Material is readily listed-by system from diagrammatics Standardization, i.e.:
and also by zone/area/stage from working drawings. How-
ever, planning is not complete until each required item is - for hull construction, shipbuilding grade material is of
assigned a: unique size per sketch (Sketch Size), of a standard size
commonly used within a specific ship (Standard
- Material Code Number which designates type, grade Within a Ship), or of standard size generally used in
size, etc. (for identification in procurement), any type ship (Standard).
- Material Cost Classification Number which identifies Regarding Standardzation, any shipbuilding grade plate,
a particular system and material family (for material- angle, etc. for hull construction is sufficiently identified for
cost control), procurement by material/grade/size. However, the same
approach for all other materials would lead to voluminous
- Piece Number which identifies, by unique serial purchase specifications. As shown in Figure 5-1 for outfit-
number per system, where the item will appear (for ting and painting, materials designated individual are
identification in design), and a identified one-by-one with an appropriate full description
for each. They are materials generally used in any type of
. Work Package Number which identifies its end use by ship. Other materials designated family are grouped in
zone/area/stage of a specific level of a specific manu- order to relate them by general characteristics. Except for
facturing method for a specific ship (for issue two or three traits, a single description identifies all
control). materials within a family.
Figure 5-1 shows how the foregoing material codes differ Materials classified as individual are defined one-by-
in their definition content because of differences in: one in purchase specifications. Those classified as
family, are defined family-by-family with unique traits
Type of work, i.e., hull construction, outfitting or separately defined. For example, certain valves are defined
painting, by family and their specific sizes and/or design pressures are
incorporated in purchase specifications.
Commonness, e.g., for hull construction, shipbuilding
grade vs. special materials; for outfitting, materials Designating system in each outfitting and painting
commonly used in several systems (e.g., piping, access, material code, as shown in Figure 5-1, is useful because it
ventilation or raw materials) vs. materials used only in facilitates standardization in material definition, cost
one system, classifications, etc. As also shown, it remains blank for
Requisition Classification, i.e.: common materials until their system designations become
known. 1
- Allocated (A) - requisitioned per ship in the exact
quantity defined in design,

system" as used for material identification is slightly different from system of the Product Aspects.System, for example, includes components which
make up a pipeline less machinery items, and anything else omitted for estimatingconvenience. System of the Product Aspects includes everything needed for
designing and producing and applies to identification in a ship.

67
I

FIGURE 5-1: Identification Codes for Material.

51XX PRIMARY
ELECT. SOURCE
52XX SECONDARY
ELECT SOURCE
53XX ELECT.
UGHTING &. SIGNAL
.

FIGURE 5-2: Typical Structure for Material Cost Classification. Except for Hull Structure, four digits are the system portion of the material code
described in Figure 5-1. XX of 3rd and 4th digits indicates a family material code.

68
 Part and component codes respectively identify hull and
outfit assembly zones which are not further subdivided.
Thus, they apply to purchased interim products and those
manufactured in-house or by a subcontractor.
As shown in Figure 5-1, composition of a Ship Piece
Number for hulI construction is hierarchically configured
as: Ship No./Block Code, Semi-block Code or Sub-block
Code/Part Code. Whenever a specific manufacturing level
is bypassed, its code is not included. Conversely when a part
is added as an exception, see Figure 3-11, a Grand-block
Joining Code is incorporated.
The Part Code should at least contain the following infor-
mation:
- parent block,
system (bulkhead, deck, longitudinal, etc.), and
unique serial number.
As it facilitates fabrication-shop planning, it is advisable to
also include in the Part Code:
- raw-material type, and
- part shape.
Each Part Code appears in a hull-block parts list, a cut-
ting plan and in a subassembly or assembly plan as ap-
propriate; see Figure 2-2. Thus, all what, where,
how and when questions are anticipated by complete-
ly defined product aspects, i.e., system/zone/area/stage.
The elements of the Ship Piece Number for outfitting, as
shown in Figure 5-1, are: Ship No./System Code/Part
No./Component Code. The System Code combined with
the Component Code, comprise a Material Cost Clas-
sification as illustrated in Figure 5-2. The System Code com-
bined with a Part No., provide relative positions of pieces
(finished interim products only) identified in a system
diagrammatic. Actual positions of pieces are as shown in
each fitting drawing per zone/area/stage see Figure 2-2.
Thus, all questions pertaining to outfitting are also an-
ticipated by completely defined product aspects.
The identification codes presented in Figure 5-1 and
described in the foregoing, permit each material item to be
assigned to both a system-oriented material-control group
and a zone-oriented material-control group. With reference
to Figure 2-1, a work-package number is used for zone-
oriented material control during planning, scheduling, exe-
cution and evaluation. A material cost classification number
controls the same material by system for evaluation,
estimating and planning. The combined use of a material
code and a ship piece number permits transformations from
zone-oriented to system-oriented data and vice versa.

69
 TRADES
I

ORGANIZATION CODE + PRODUCT ASPECTS/LEVEL = COST CENTER

PRODUCT-ORIENTED WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE

FIGURE 5-3: Typical Cost Centers are separately depicted by the horizontal combinations on each line. Cost centers shown exactly march the shipyard
organization. With few exceptions, the yardsticks used for performance measurement are based upon work packages grouped by problem area per level.
Yardsticks are whatever best suits circumstances at each manufacturing level. *ControI by stage is added only when there are special or extensive welding
requirements. Otherwise, welding incident to normal fitting is performed by fitters; control by problem area is sufficient.

70
5.2 Manpower - Organization Code which indicates the grouping of
workers by shipyard (in firms that have more than
In PWBS, manpower is readily assigned by zone, which one), by type of work, by fabrication shop or
permits immediate association of man-hours allocated with assembly section, and by trade,
those charged for manufacturing an interim product. But,
reliance on such comparisons for performance measurement - Badge Number which is a serial number assigned to
is avoided because: identify each worker for payroll purposes only,
- as there are many work packages, there would be an - Work Package Number which identifies a manpower
enormous amount of information generated which allocation by zone/area/stage for a specific: type of
would obscure significant trends, work, manufacturing level, and ship, and
- there is a need to provide for both area- and system- - Cost Center Code (Manpower Cost Classification)
oriented work packages in addition to those which are which identifies the total manpower charges for a
zone-oriented, number of work packages grouped per level by
similarities in select combinations of product aspects
- different performance standards, reflecting normal (Control Group).
throughput, are required to separately address even
identical types of work at different manufacturing Typical such cost centers, which exactly match a shipyard
levels, and organization, are shown in Figure 5-3. They feature primary
dependence on collecting manpower charges from a number
an enormous effort would be required to convert of work packages that are separated only by problem area
zone- or area-oriented costs to costs by system as per manufacturing level. The charges so collected are com-
needed for estimating. pared to yardsticks for progress and efficiency which
themselves have been statistically determined from a history
Because of the foregoing, manpower charges are analyzed of such charges. Typical yardsticks which are the bases for
in accordance with a Cost Center concept derived from the judgement during performance evaluations, are shown in
inherent applicability of PWBS to all industrial situations. Figure 5-4.
Manpower charges are identified by:
5.3 Facilities and Expenses
Facilities and expenses are product resources of a second
order as compared to material and manpower. The cost
classifications and charging methods described in Figure 5-5
are commonly applied by many shipyards.
Direct costs are those that can be related to specific in-
terim products. Indirect costs are not so identifiable.
Therefore, at regular time intervals, forecasts of all indirect
costs to support a group of work packages, e.g., those for a
manpower cost-center, are applied as overhead to the cost
center using predicted direct man-hours as the basis for such
apportionments. If there is no difference among appor-
tionments, it is prudent to apply a forecast of summarized
overhead charges to a higher level control group.

72
 6.0 EVALUATION AND FEEDBACK TO
ESTIMATING

The management cycle, Figure 6-1, incorporates transfor-

mations of system- and zone-oriented data in both the plan-
ning and evaluation functions. As shown in Figure 2-2, peo-
ple who perform design and material deftinition are the p/an-
ners who make initial transformations. However, they are
very dependent on feedback from field engineers. This in-
teraction between design and production specialists is essen-
tial for defining ideal work packages by zone, area and stage
that uniformly load integrated work processes such as those
shown in Figure 2-4.
While such zone-oriented work is in-progress, there is
need for evaluation which involves sorting, analyzing and
reorganizing performance data collected by control groups
in order to:
- monitor manhours spent, production progress and
productivity, and
- feedback system-oriented data for estimating poten-
tial shipbuilding projects.
For these purposes, it is sufficient to address only manpower
among the product resources. This is because material is
identified both by system and zone, and facilities and ex-
penses are charged as overhead on direct material and man-
power accounts. Thus, the practical indices shown in Figure
5-4, for monitoring man-hours spent, progress and produc-
tivity, are sufficient.
6.1 Man-hour Expenditures
The character of the manpower index, i.e., man-hours per
unit time, is the same for the various control groups of work
packages which apply to all work categories. Typical ac-
cumulations of data recorded accordingly, are provided in
Figures 6-2 through 6-5. The plotted curves indicate actual
manpower costs but only apparent progress. I I
FIGURE 6-l: TheManagement Cycle shown applies to any industrial
6.2 Production Progress process and is annotated with PWBS information flows by system,
zone, area and stage. Transformations between system and zone oc-
As shown in Figure 5-4 the indices for production prog- cur in Planning and Evaluation.
ress use different means of measure (weight, welding

Achieving the needed work balance is facilitated by adapting zone, area and stage classifications (a pallet list) from a previously built ship. This permits
creating coordinated schedules for material procurement (including interim products), manning, and working drawings very soon after contract award.

73
parameters, laid cable length, etc.) per unit time. Further, it Further, there is need to separately address each material
is sometimes necessary to apply more than one for each con- item for which there is no correlation between its weight and
trol group of work packages. Accumulations of such data as required fitting man-hours (e.g., a main engine, boiler,
illustrated in Figure 6-6, reflect rea/ progress. When com- hatch cover, etc.). The fitting of each such non-
pared to pertinent schedules, they are the bases for short parametric item is the subject of a separate work package.
term adjustments, e.g., shifting workers, using overtime, This permits the collection of man-hour expenditures per
etc. When the manpower cost-centers exactly match the component which is immediately identifiable with a system.
shipyard organization, as shown in Figure 5-3, it is practical
to delegate such control to the managers of fabrication Thus, in consideration of the two sources of zone-
shops and assembly sections. oriented data, i.e., parametric and non-parametric man-
hours, the total man-hours apportioned to a system can be
6.3 Productivity expressed by the formulas:
Productivity indices, as shown in Figure 5-4, utilize both (1) Ht = HP + HC
manhours expended and the measures used for monitoring
production progress, i.e., weight, welding parameters, laid
cable length, etc. Typical plots of data so recorded are incor- where
porated in Figures 6-7 through 6-11 relative to established
efficiencies. Each of the latter is usually an average based Ht = total man-hours
upon the performance history associated with a specific con-
trol group of work packages. Any curve which appears H P = total parametric man-hours
above its efficiency reference indicates man-hour expen-
ditures at an above average rate. HC = total non-parametric man-hours
Productivity evaluations can be simplified by a Productiv-
ity-control Group (PCG) concept. It eliminates consideration
of specific product aspects and is practical provided:
- each PCG corresponds to a specific manpower-
control group, and
- the same indices for manpower expenditures, progress
and productivity apply within each manufacturing e = a productivity index for a control group Of
level. work packages
An example of a PCG is illustrated in Figure 6-12. Prod- v = pertinent description of that part of a system
uct aspects are disregarded because work packages are included in a control group of work packages, e.g.,
planned so that their efficiency values, for normal produc- assembly weight, length of weld, manufactured
tivity, fall within a specified allowable range per manufac-
turing level. pieces, parametric-component weight, laid cable

The PCG concept is another example of inherent versatili-

ty in a product-oriented work breakdown. When there are i = the number of work-package control groups in
unusual problems (e.g., because of new facilities or over ex- which a system is represented
penditures of manpower), more control is applied by using
the best suited combination of product aspects. Conversely,
during routine operations the simpler PCG approach is
more practical.
6.4 Zone to System Transposition
The productivity indices are useful for transposing man- where
power expenditures for zone-oriented work to the system-
by-system data needed for estimating. In PWBS, man-hour h = man-hours for fitting a non-parametric com-
expenditures can be collected by different methods for ponent
grouping work packages depending on the degree of control
required. These vary from any combination of trade, j = the number of non-parametric components
manufacturing level, system, zone, area and stage, as shown
in Figure 5-3, to a simple Productivity Control Group (PCG)
as in Figure 6-12.

74
 FIGURE 6-2: Manpower Expenditures-Hull Construction. FIGURE 6-3: Manpower Expenditures-Msvhinery Fitting.

FIGURE 6-4: Manpower Expenditures-Electrical Assembly of All FIGURE 6-5: Manpower Expenditures-Electrcal Assembly of
Components Except Cable. Cable.

FIGURE 6-7: Productivity-Parts Fabrication. The plot for bending

is by stage. The other two are by problem area. This illustrates the
FIGURE 6-6: Production Progress-Hull Construction. versatility of PWBS for fulfilling practical needs.
 WEIGHT FIGURE 6-9: Productivity-Erection. In this special case the pro-
ducdvity index, man hours/fabricated weight, is used to establish a
FIGURE 6-8: Productivity-subassembly and Block Assembly. The reference because weight accumulates rapidly as block are landed and
curved-block and flat-block plots are by problem area. The welding mart-hours lag. Managers employ the reference to monitor
subassembly plot is by level. outstanding welding man-hours relative to landed weight.

FIGURE 6-11: Producdvity-Electrial Fitting of all components ex-

FIGURE 6-10: Productivity-Machinery Fitting. Parametric- cept cable. Each work package identities total weight and parametric-
component weight is the weight of only those items for which there component weight. The difference, i.e., items which comprise non-
are correlations between weight and fitting man-hours. parametric-component weight, are treated as exceptions.

FIGURE 6-12: The Productivity-control Group (PCG) Concept as applied to Machinery Fitting. This example corresponds to a specific manpower-
control group in Figure 5-3 (i.e., all elements of the Organization Code less trades). Regardless of product aspects, each work package efficiency rating
falls within an allowable range specified for each manufacturing level. If normal performance causes overlap, such as is possible for on-unit and on-block
efficiencies, there is no need to address them as separate PCG.
 7.0 PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS

PWBS facilitates the accumulation of experiences in a se- The Q for ZOFM work packages is considerably depen-
quence of work packages which addresses specific interim dent upon hull structure. Therefore, extraordinary coor-
products. Interim products for a subsequent ship- dination is required during transition design so that outfit
construction project, are matched to their predecessors by work specialists who establish the system/zone interrelation-
zone/are/stage in order to apply pertinent experiences ships on composites can:
regardless of differences in design details. Thus, a work
package with a modest goal, e.g., a small assembly of outfit - for zone considerations arrange components to
components, can be significantly improved in productivity facilitate the progress of outfit work zone-by-zone and
value over just a few ship construction projects. This proc- group-by-group; gather and lay pipe pieces and elec-
ess of continuing improvement is dependent upon the tric cables in orderly pipe and cable passages respec-
reorientation of managers and workers and in particular tively locate pipe line joints for connecting between
upon the interaction of designers and field engineers. The blocks, on the same deck or flat;
following suggestions, by functions, are intended to assist in
implementation of PWBS. - for area considerations group components in order to
coordinate the start of work for machinery founda-
7.1 Sizing Work Packager tions, machinery, pipe supports, pipe pieces, walk-
ways, etc.;
7.1.1 Quality
- for stage considerations phase components to reduce
As described in Part 1.3 herein, quality (Q) is a fun- overhead work by fitting on-ceiling with blocks turned
damental element for determining the productivity value over and to reduce services required during on-open-
(PV) and hence size of a work package. In addition to space fitting of large components; and
evaluating the impact of specified accuracy or functioning
ability of an interim product, it also assesses the safety and - incorporate modularized work packages and work
efficiency of related work. package components as much as possible.

For HBCM work, Q evaluations should be made during 7.1.2 Quantity

transition design. Ideal division of a hull into blocks should
result in: As described in Part 1.3 herein, quantity (N) is an in-
dicator of the amount of all resources required for a work
- minimal welding during erection, package. However, of the resources, material and man-
power quantities are the principal N determinents.
. stable blocks that facilitate erection,
The number of components for a work package should be
- block and part shapes that, as much as possible, are limited to that which a worker can quickly sort and fit at a
standard within each hull and facilitate outfitting and designated site. Otherwise, a disproportionate amount of
painting. the working time allocated is used to find needed com-
ponents. Work packages which contain large components
Fulfillment of these objectives in planning results in the can be sized by weight.
safest and most efficient work circumstances in production.

"Improving Shipyard production with Standard Components and Modules by Y. Ichinose, IHI CO., Ltd., Tokyo: proceedings of the SNAME Spring
Meeting, April 26, 1978, pp. 10-1 to 10-11.

77
 Manpower should be allocated by considering skill levels (7) The drawing issue schedule should be established
of workers and their assistants and the work volume in- block-by-block and be in accordance with the blocl
volved. It is sometimes necessary to add manpower in order assembly master schedule.
to reduce planned working time.
7.2.2 0utfitting
7.1.3 Time
(1) Using diagrammatic, all material requirement
As stated in Part 1.3 herein, time (T) is the duration should be defined by system to facilitate sorting an
alIowed for accomplishment of a work package; it is work- early identification of long-lead time, manufacturing
ing time. It is a key element for scheduling. Work packages, order and short-lead time materials.
insofar as possible, should be organized for accomplishment
within modularized time spans, e.g., within five or ten days. (2) Zone-oriented drawings (composites) should be
This facilitates scheduling of work package starts and com- prepared as intermediate drawings for transposing
pletions in unison as is required for on-flow work. Dura- from system-oriented diagrammatic to work instruc
tions achievable are dependent upon Q, N and workers tions drawings. The composites need only show
abilities and degrees of persistency. enough detail to establish the system and zone inter
relationships.
7.2 Design and Material Definition
(3) The arrangements on composites should anticipate
7.2.1 Hull Construction basic scheme for zone/area/stage, i.e., a pallet list fo
which there has been agreement between designer:
(1) Zone-oriented block plans and corresponding block and production engineers in the field.
parts lists should be prepared as intermediate plans for
transforming from system-oriented functional plans (4) A composite drawing should apply to a group of adja
(e.g., midship section, and shell expansion) to work- cent zones and even overlapping zones provided the
ing drawings by zone/area/stage (i.e., cutting, subas- latter are planned for different stages.
sembly and assembly drawings).
(5) Planning for outfit work packages, grouped by
(2) Hull block planning should be performed in coopera- zone/area/stage, should be integrated with hull block
tion with field engineers to facilitate outfitting and planning.
painting as welI as hull construction.
(6) Work instruction drawings should include details for
(3) Block and part coding shouId be made block-by-block all pipe lines excepting only short tubing lengths for
to facilitate coordinated scheduling of work package instruments.
start dates and collection and sorting of parts and
subassemblies. That is, all cutting, subassembly and (7) Codes for outfit work packages and components
assembly plans should be sequenced to anticipate the should incorporate zone-by-zone identifications in
block assembly master schedule. This measure is order to facilitate coordinated scheduling of work
necessary to avoid producing parts and subassemblies package start dates and collection and sorting of outfit
too far in advance. Items which are produced early, components.
generally identical parts or subassemblies, create need
for more storage space and problems associated with (8) Each work package should be clearly identified b
retrieval, non-uniform lead times, deteriorating shop- zone/area/stage on a work instruction drawing an
primer, etc. Further, the inconsistent grouping provided with a specific material list of fittings. Suc
detracts from clear understanding of the production drawings developed from composites (often by trac
process grouped by area and stage which is necessary ing) should provide information, commensurate wit
for layout of smooth operating process lanes. workers comprehension levels, such as:
(4) A block plan should apply to a group of adjacent - when, relative to other interim products should
blocks and shouId be organized as a compact booklet specific interim product be assembled,
which includes necessary work instructions.
- what components it is to be produced from,
(5) Assembly, subassembly and cutting working drawings
should be prepared by zone/area/stage. These should - how is it to be assembled, etc.
reflect the work instructions written in the block plan.
These instructions are important. They must be con
(6) During marking, if parts for a specific block or for tinuously updated based upon feedback from worker
bIocks once or twice removed in a schedule do not oc- and field engineers to detail designers. They are mean
cupy all of a plate, the cutting plan should devote the for an organization to retain useful work experience
excess material to flat-bar for stock rather than to rather than allowing experience to be just vested in in-
parts needed far in advance. dividuals. Also, the instructions are needed to ade-
quately control work flow on process lanes. Work
packages classified by the work problems they impose

78
 are matched to sets of solutions which include specific facilities, and worker safety requirements. Such input
worker qualification classes. This avoids need to should be based upon experience at work sites.
assign the same individuals who produced identical in-
terim products in the past. The absence of this ar- (2) In accordance with the PWBS concept, work
bitrary restriction facilitates scheduling for process packages should be organized to achieve coordinated
flow lanes so that they are more uniformly loaded and work flows on specific process lanes as illustrated in
better coordinated with each other. Figure 2-4.

7.3 Material Procurement and Control (3) Standards are required for accuracy control of the
separate flow lanes in accordance with consistent cri-
7.3.1 Hull Material teria. This insures that the end products of different
work stages will ultimately fit together easily because
(1) Lists for raw materials should be prepared from rough their dimensions are within allowed tolerances based
cutting plans for hull structural parts based upon on a common scheme. Thus, a system for accuracy
reference to functional plans. Thus, commitment and control is essential for maintaining scheduled work
systematic deliveries for maintenance of a minimum flows.
supply in the shipyard can be arranged at a very early
stage. (4) In a process lane, both the safety and quality of work
circumstances for a specific work stage should be fre-
(2) Lists for raw materials should be reprepared from quently evaluated and always in the context of the
detail cutting Plans based upon reference to the block work stages immediately before and after.
plan. These lists should be used to control material
issues. (5) Systematic in-process material control and associated
time are required between successive work processes
7.3.2 Outfit Material for collecting, sorting and distributing interim prod-
ucts (especially small end products after fabrication
(1) Each component, except minor common items freely and sub-block assembly processes).
available in bins near work sites, should be coded by
piece and work package. The coding is essential in 7.4.2 Outfitting
order to identify:
(1) Outfit work package planning and classifications
- when specific material requisition orders should be should be proposed by production field engineers to
released, detail designers for incorporation on composites and
work instruction drawings.
- when material should be delivered to work sites, and
(2) Work package planning should reflect a pallet list and
- what fittings must be collected to fulfill a work the PWBS concept as typically portrayed in Figure
package material list (MLF). 2-4. In other words each work package should address
a zone by stage and be classified by similarities in
(2) Each component should be painted at least through work problems.
the primer level (if required) and identified with its
code number (painted or tagged) by its in-house or (3) On-unit and on-block outfitting should be planned for
subcontractor manufacturer before it is sent to the accomplishment on sites adjacent to the erection site
shipyards warehouse. in order to avoid transportation problems immediate-
ly before erection.
(3) Fittings should not be issued separately to workers
calling at the warehouse. They should only become (4) The on-unit, on-block and on-board outfitting master
available to workers in a collection of materials schedules should reflect the block erection and block
(pallet) delivered at a specified time and place for ex- assembly master schedules. Careful coordination is re-
ecution of a specific work package. quired with other functions (e.g. design, material pro-
(4) Starting as early as the beginning of basic design curement, hull construction, painting) for such con-
through completion of palletizing, lead times for fit- cerns as:
tings must be considered by everyone concerned with - time reservations for necessary outfitting on-block
material definition, procurement, manufacturing before a block is completed,
warehousing and palletizing.
- needed lead times for design, material definition,
7.4 Producing procurement and fabrication.
7.4.1 Hull Construction (5) Work instruction drawings grouped by zone/area/-
stage should be prepared for outfit workers conven-
(1) Field engineers should have contributed to hull block ience even at some added expense in design.
planning in order to insure that designers anticipated
the capabilities and limits of available manpower and

79
 (6) Accuracy standards are required for the end products
of outfit flow lanes consistent with those for hull con-
struction and for the same reasons. Work instructions
for the correction of probable misalignments should
be included in order to minimize disruption to
scheduled work flow when rework is necessary.
(7) The fitting of each complicated arrangement should
be in three distinct stages which may be termed
plan/do/see. That is at the:
- first stage, workers study the work instructions and
discuss them with their supervisor,
- second stage, work is performed, and at the
- third stage, workers discuss with their supervisor,
and when appropriate a field engineer, how similar
future work packages could be improved.

, ft1