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Standards: Required To Allow For Interoperability Between Equipment Advantages

The document discusses standards, protocols, and networking concepts. It provides an overview of standards organizations and the OSI model, which defines communication layers. It describes physical network topologies like bus, ring, and star, and wide area network technologies. Key elements of protocols are outlined, as well as functions like encapsulation, segmentation, and connection control that protocols perform.

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Chandrashekar
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127 views48 pages

Standards: Required To Allow For Interoperability Between Equipment Advantages

The document discusses standards, protocols, and networking concepts. It provides an overview of standards organizations and the OSI model, which defines communication layers. It describes physical network topologies like bus, ring, and star, and wide area network technologies. Key elements of protocols are outlined, as well as functions like encapsulation, segmentation, and connection control that protocols perform.

Uploaded by

Chandrashekar
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Standards

„ Required to allow for interoperability


between equipment
„ Advantages
„ Ensures a large market for equipment and
software
„ Allows products from different vendors to
communicate
„ Disadvantages
„ Freeze technology
„ May be multiple standards for the same thing
Standards Organizations
„ Internet Society
„ ISO
„ ITU-T (formally CCITT)
„ ATM forum
OSI - The Model
„ A layer model
„ Each layer performs a subset of the required
communication functions
„ Each layer relies on the next lower layer to
perform more primitive functions
„ Each layer provides services to the next
higher layer
„ Changes in one layer should not require
changes in other layers
The OSI Environment
OSI as Framework for
Standardization
Layer Specific Standards
Elements of Standardization
„ Protocol specification
„ Operates between the same layer on two systems
„ May involve different operating system
„ Protocol specification must be precise
„ Format of data units
„ Semantics of all fields
„ allowable sequence of PCUs
„ Service definition
„ Functional description of what is provided
„ Addressing
„ Referenced by SAPs
OSI Layers (1)
„ Physical
„ Physical interface between devices
„ Mechanical
„ Electrical
„ Functional
„ Procedural
„ Data Link
„ Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating
a reliable link
„ Error detection and control
„ Higher layers may assume error free transmission
OSI Layers (2)
„ Network
„ Transport of information
„ Higher layers do not need to know about underlying technology
„ Not needed on direct links
„ Transport
„ Exchange of data between end systems
„ Error free
„ In sequence
„ No losses
„ No duplicates
„ Quality of service
OSI Layers (3)
„ Session
„ Control of dialogues between applications
„ Dialogue discipline
„ Grouping
„ Recovery
„ Presentation
„ Data formats and coding
„ Data compression
„ Encryption
„ Application
„ Means for applications to access OSI environment
Terminology (1)
„ Transmitter
„ Receiver
„ Medium
„ Guided medium
„ e.g. twisted pair, optical fiber
„ Unguided medium
„ e.g. air, water, vacuum
Terminology (2)
„ Direct link
„ No intermediate devices
„ Point-to-point
„ Direct link
„ Only 2 devices share link
„ Multi-point
„ More than two devices share the link
Terminology (3)
„ Simplex
„ One direction
„ e.g. Television
„ Half duplex
„ Either direction, but only one way at a time
„ e.g. police radio
„ Full duplex
„ Both directions at the same time
„ e.g. telephone
A Communications Model
„ Source
„ generates data to be transmitted

„ Transmitter
„ Converts data into transmittable signals

„ Transmission System
„ Carries data

„ Receiver
„ Converts received signal into data

„ Destination
„ Takes incoming data
Simplified Communications
Model - Diagram
Key Communications Tasks
„ Transmission System Utilization
„ Interfacing
„ Signal Generation
„ Synchronization
„ Exchange Management
„ Error detection and correction
„ Addressing and routing
„ Recovery
„ Message formatting
„ Security
„ Network Management
Simplified Data
Communications Model
Networking
„ Point to point communication not
usually practical
„ Devices are too far apart
„ Large set of devices would need
impractical number of connections
„ Solution is a communications network
Simplified Network Model
Local Area Networks
„ Smaller scope
„ Building or small campus
„ Usually owned by same organization as
attached devices
„ Data rates much higher
„ Usually broadcast systems
„ Now some switched systems and ATM
are being introduced
LAN Applications (1)
„ Personal computer LANs
„ Low cost
„ Limited data rate
„ Back end networks and storage area
networks
„ Interconnecting large systems (mainframes
and large storage devices)
„ High data rate
„ High speed interface
„ Distributed access
„ Limited distance
„ Limited number of devices
LAN Applications (2)
„ High speed office networks
„ Desktop image processing
„ High capacity local storage
„ Backbone LANs
„ Interconnect low speed local LANs
„ Reliability
„ Capacity
„ Cost
LAN Topologies
Bus and Tree
„ Multipoint medium
„ Transmission propagates throughout medium
„ Heard by all stations
„ Need to identify target station

„ Each station has unique address

„ Full duplex connection between station and tap


„ Allows for transmission and reception

„ Need to regulate transmission


„ To avoid collisions

„ To avoid hogging

„ Data in small blocks - frames

„ Terminator absorbs frames at end of medium


Frame Transmission - Bus LAN
Ring Topology
„ Repeaters joined by point to point links in closed
loop
„ Receive data on one link and retransmit on another
„ Links unidirectional
„ Stations attach to repeaters
„ Data in frames
„ Circulate past all stations
„ Destination recognizes address and copies frame
„ Frame circulates back to source where it is removed
„ Media access control determines when station can
insert frame
Frame Transmission Ring LAN
Star Topology
„ Each station connected directly to
central node
„ Usually via two point to point links
„ Central node can broadcast
„ Physical star, logical bus
„ Only one station can transmit at a time
„ Central node can act as frame switch
Wide Area Networks
„ Large geographical area
„ Crossing public rights of way
„ Rely in part on common carrier circuits
„ Alternative technologies
„ Circuit switching
„ Packet switching
„ Frame relay
„ Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Circuit Switching
„ Dedicated communications path
established for the duration of the
conversation
„ e.g. telephone network
Packet Switching
„ Data sent out of sequence
„ Small chunks (packets) of data at a
time
„ Packets passed from node to node
between source and destination
„ Used for terminal to computer and
computer to computer communications
Frame Relay
„ Packet switching systems have large
overheads to compensate for errors
„ Modern systems are more reliable
„ Errors can be caught in end system
„ Most overhead for error control is
stripped out
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
„ ATM
„ Evolution of frame relay
„ Little overhead for error control
„ Fixed packet (called cell) length
„ Anything from 10Mbps to Gbps
„ Constant data rate using packet
switching technique
Protocols
„ Used for communications between entities in a system
„ Must speak the same language
„ Entities
„ User applications

„ e-mail facilities

„ terminals

„ Systems
„ Computer

„ Terminal

„ Remote sensor
Key Elements of a Protocol
„ Syntax
„ Data formats

„ Signal levels

„ Semantics
„ Control information

„ Error handling

„ Timing
„ Speed matching

„ Sequencing
Characteristics
„ Direct or indirect
„ Monolithic or structured
„ Symmetric or asymmetric
„ Standard or nonstandard
Direct or Indirect
„ Direct
„ Systems share a point to point link or
„ Systems share a multi-point link
„ Data can pass without intervening active
agent
„ Indirect
„ Switched networks or
„ Internetworks or internets
„ Data transfer depend on other entities
Symmetric or Asymmetric
„ Symmetric
„ Communication between peer entities
„ Asymmetric
„ Client/server
Standard or Nonstandard
„ Nonstandard protocols built for specific
computers and tasks
„ K sources and L receivers leads to K*L
protocols and 2*K*L implementations
„ If common protocol used, K + L
implementations needed
Use of Standard Protocols
Monolithic or Structured
„ Communications is a complex task
„ To complex for single unit
„ Structured design breaks down problem
into smaller units
„ Layered structure
Functions
„ Encapsulation
„ Segmentation and reassmebly
„ Connection control
„ Ordered delivery
„ Flow control
„ Error control
„ Addressing
„ Multiplexing
„ Transmission services
Encapsulation
„ Addition of control information to data
„ Address information
„ Error-detecting code
„ Protocol control
Segmentation (Fragmentation)
„ Data blocks are of bounded size
„ Application layer messages may be large
„ Network packets may be smaller
„ Splitting larger blocks into smaller ones is
segmentation (or fragmentation in TCP/IP)
„ ATM blocks (cells) are 53 octets long
„ Ethernet blocks (frames) are up to 1526 octets
long
„ Checkpoints and restart/recovery
Why Fragment?
„ Advantages
„ More efficient error control
„ More equitable access to network facilities
„ Shorter delays
„ Smaller buffers needed

„ Disadvantages
„ Overheads
„ Increased interrupts at receiver
„ More processing time
Connection Control
„ Connection Establishment
„ Data transfer
„ Connection termination
„ May be connection interruption and recovery
„ Sequence numbers used for
„ Ordered delivery

„ Flow control

„ Error control
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
„ Developed by the US Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its
packet switched network (ARPANET)
„ Used by the global Internet
„ No official model but a working one.
„ Application layer
„ Host to host or transport layer
„ Internet layer
„ Network access layer
„ Physical layer
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
Model

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