Lecture 1.
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Introduction to Fluid Dynamics
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Introduction
• A thorough study of the laws of fluid mechanics is necessary to
understand the fluid motion within the turbomachinery
components.
• In this introductory lecture, some relevant concepts of fluid
mechanics are revised, before entering the realms of
computational fluid dynamics.
• Fluid mechanics has two parts:
– Kinematics
– Dynamics
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• The kinematics is about describing the fluid motion without
taking into account the forces that cause the motion.
• In fluid dynamics, the forces are considered for the analysis of
fluid motion. Governing equations are derived by considering
the balance of these forces.
• Computational fluid dynamics is a subject where the fluid
motion is studied by solving the governing differential equations
using numerical methods.
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Microscopic versus Macroscopic Approaches
• Microscopic and macroscopic are the two approaches using
which the fluid flows are analyzed and the flow properties like
density, velocity, etc. are determined at each point of the flow
domain.
• In the microscopic approach, the molecular mean free path is far
larger than the characteristic dimension.
• In the macroscopic approach, the fluid is considered as a
continuum, that is, the fluid in a region is assumed to occupy
every geometric point of that region. The point here means a
very small volume in the fluid region whose size is zero in the
limit.
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• Flow studies in machines working at very low pressures such as
a turbo molecular pump require microscopic view. The flows in
turbomachines, which are of interest in this course, are all in the
continuum and hence the macroscopic approach is appropriate.
• The course objectives are, therefore, to know
– The formulation of equations governing the fluid flow in
turbomachines
– Physical modeling of the flow domains in a turbomachine
– The methodology to solve the governing equations and
– The analysis of the numerical results.
• The results obtained for a turbomachine model can be extended
to another geometrically similar prototype machine when the
kinematic and dynamic similarity rules are respected between
the model and the prototype. 5
Eulerian and Lagrangian Approaches
• In the Eulerian approach, the flow properties are described as
functions of space and time, like in cinematography.
• The complete state of motion is described by a succession of
instantaneous states of flow. Thus if is a flow property, then
(x, y, z, t) or (r , t) is the value of at r, the position occupied by
the particle and at the instant of time t.
• At a later time the fluid particle occupying the position (x, y, z)
will be different. If the flow is steady then “” is independent of
t and is a function of x, y and z alone.
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• In the Lagrange method, fluid particles are identified by their
position ro (or xo, yo, zo,) at any time to and describe their
trajectories. The trajectory of the line along which a particle
moves is called a path line.
• The instantaneous velocity and acceleration v and a can be
expressed as
r v 2r
v v ro , t and a 2 a ro , t
t ro const . t ro const t ro const
• Except for multi-phase flows such as gas-solid flows, where
one or both of the phases may be considered for the
Lagrangian description, the Eulerian approach is more
appropriate for describing the fluid motion. The governing
equations in this course are therefore written using only the
Eulerian approach. 7
Velocity of a Fluid Particle
• In the Eulerian description, the particles which occupy a chosen
point are going to change from time t to t + δt.
• Let P be the point whose position vector is r at time t with
respect to some fixed point
‘O’.
That is,
OP r
• After a time δt the same particle is moved to P′, as shown in the
Fig. 1.1.1, having a distance δr from P. Therefore, the particle
velocity v at P is given by
r dr (1.1.1)
v lim
t 0 t dt
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Figure 1.1.1 Velocity
• That is, the velocity is dependent on r and t.
• The velocity in Cartesian coordinates is given by
v uiˆ vjˆ wkˆ (1.1.2)
dx dy dz
where u , v , w
dt dt dt
• iˆ, ˆj and kˆ are the unit vectors in the coordinate directions x, y, z,
respectively.
Note that r xiˆ yjˆ zkˆ (1.1.3)
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Substantial Derivative
• In order to compute the time rate of change of any property at
the chosen point, therefore, the local rate of change of the
property and also the change of its position have to be used. That
is
D
u v w v (1.1.4)
Dt t x y z t
• The derivative D/Dt is called by several names such as
substantial derivative, material derivative, particle derivative or
total derivative.
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Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
• The first term on R.H.S. of Eq. (1.1.4), is called the local
derivative which indicates the unsteady time variation of fluid
property at a point. The sum of the last three terms is called
convective derivative of the particle.
• Using the substantial derivative, the acceleration of a fluid
particle is written as
Dv v v v v v (1.1.5)
a v v u v w
Dt t t x y z
• Note that the acceleration Dv Dt is called total acceleration,
comprising of local acceleration (partial derivative w.r.t. time)
and convective acceleration (caused due to the fluid motion
itself). (x, y, z) is the inertial frame of reference. 11
Streamline
• Streamline is an imaginary curve in the flow such that the
tangent at each point on the curve coincides with the direction of
the velocity at that point.
• When the flow is steady, the streamline coincides with the path
line of any fluid particle. The equation of a streamline is
dx dy dz
(1.1.6)
u v w
• However, in unsteady motion, the flow pattern varies with time.
Therefore, the streamlines and path lines differ with each other.
(refer Fig. 1.1.2).
• The turbomachinery flows, in general, are unsteady. 12
Fig. 1.1.2 Streamlines and pathlines
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Stream Surface and Stream Tube
• A stream sheet or stream surface is generated by a group of
streamlines passing through some given curve, C. If the curve C
is closed, the streamlines form a stream tube.
• (Since a stream tube is like a virtual solid surface, a particle can
have no motion perpendicular to the streamline.)
• The space that the fluid occupies in a turbomachine can be
considered as a stream tube. Even the flow between the blades of
the turbomachines may be treated approximately in this manner.
• This approach gives an average behavior of fluid flow and is
known as a quasi-one dimensional treatment. 14
Stream Function
• As there can be no flow across a streamline, stream function is a
constant over a given streamline.
• From the equation of streamline Eq. (1.1.6), the velocity
components can be readily derived as derivatives of stream
function with respect to the spatial coordinates.
• For incompressible flow, the change in stream function signifies
the change in mass flow rate.
• For inviscid and incompressible flow, (also irrotational flows)
the stream function satisfies the Laplace’s equation. A flow net,
with the mutually orthogonal stream function and velocity
potential functions, can be constructed for such flows. 15
Vorticity and Irrotational Flow
• The curl of the velocity vector is called vorticity,
v
• If i j k , then,
w v u w v u
; ; and (1.1.7)
y z z x x y
• Vorticity is a vector and its magnitude is twice the angular
velocity of the fluid particle at a given position in the flow field.
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• A flow field is called irrotational when the vorticity is zero i.e.
= = = 0.
• Velocity potential exists in such a flow and hence is called
potential flow.
• The velocity components in this case are given by
u ; v ; w (1.1.8)
x y z
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Vortex Line, Vortex Sheet and Vortex Tube
• Vortex line is an imaginary curve lying in the flow field such that
its tangent at any point coincides with the direction of vorticity
at that point.
• The equation of a vortex line is
dx dy dz (1.1.9)
• Vortex sheet is a surface composed of vortex lines.
• Vortex tube is generated by vortex lines, drawn through each
point of a closed curve C. A vortex tube is also referred simply
as a vortex.
• A vortex tube of a very small cross-section is called a vortex
filament. 18
Circulation
• The instantaneous line integral
of the tangential velocity around
any closed curve C in a flow field
is called circulation, denoted by . Fig.1.1.4 Circulation
Fig. 1.1.3 Circulation
• It is taken as positive when C, as shown in Fig. 1.1.3, is
traversed such that the area enclosed by C lies to the left.
v ds
C
udx vdy wdz
C
(1.1.10)
v n dA (by Stokes theorem)
A
• Stokes theorem links circulation with vorticity.
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• The circulation around any curve C, bounding an area A (simply
or multiply connected), is the sum of the circulations around all
the lesser areas in to which A may be arbitrarily divided.
• Strength of a vortex tube is the circulation along a circuit lying
on the surface of the vortex tube and passing around it only
once.
• Strength of a vortex is same throughout its length.
• A vortex cannot have an end within the fluid i.e. vortex filament
either forms a closed curve or extends to the fluid boundaries.
• The above points can be applied to develop a simple theory
called isolated blade element theory for turbomachines, where
the number of blades is not very large.
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Summary of Lecture 1.1
In this lecture introductory aspects of fluid dynamics such as
Microscopic versus Macroscopic approaches, Eulerian versus
Lagrangian approaches and basic definitions of velocity stream
function, vorticity and circulation are presented. The
understanding of the concept of circulation is required to
develop blade element theory used for turbomachines.
END OF LECTURE 1.1
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