Module 2 Kinematics of Fluid

Lagrangian and Eulerian Description of Fluid Motion

1. What is the Lagrangian description of fluid motion?

o It tracks individual fluid particles by following their position and velocity over time. It
provides detailed information about particle trajectories.

2. How does the Eulerian approach differ from the Lagrangian approach?

o The Eulerian approach observes fluid properties at fixed points in space, while the
Lagrangian approach follows individual fluid particles. Eulerian is more practical for
analyzing flow fields, whereas Lagrangian is useful for tracking particles.

3. Explain with examples where the Lagrangian method is preferred over Eulerian.

o Lagrangian is preferred for studying pollutant dispersion in rivers or the motion of

bubbles in a liquid.

4. Write the mathematical form of fluid motion in the Eulerian approach.

o v(x,t)\mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x}, t): Velocity field as a function of position x\mathbf{x}

and time tt.

Acceleration Field of a Fluid

5. What is the difference between local and convective acceleration?

o Local acceleration: Time rate of change of velocity at a fixed point.

o Convective acceleration: Change in velocity due to fluid motion across a spatial

gradient.

6. Derive the expression for total acceleration in Cartesian coordinates.

o Total acceleration: a=∂v∂t+(v⋅∇)v\mathbf{a} = \frac{\partial \mathbf{v}}{\partial t} +

(\mathbf{v} \cdot \nabla) \mathbf{v} In Cartesian coordinates:
ax=∂vx∂t+vx∂vx∂x+vy∂vx∂y+vz∂vx∂za_x = \frac{\partial v_x}{\partial t} + v_x
\frac{\partial v_x}{\partial x} + v_y \frac{\partial v_x}{\partial y} + v_z \frac{\partial
v_x}{\partial z} Similar terms apply for aya_y and aza_z.

7. Explain why local acceleration is zero for steady flow.

o In steady flow, velocity at a given point does not change with time
(∂v∂t=0\frac{\partial \mathbf{v}}{\partial t} = 0), so local acceleration is zero.

8. How is acceleration expressed in cylindrical coordinates?

 o In cylindrical coordinates:
a=(∂vr∂t+vr∂vr∂r+vθ2r)r^+(∂vθ∂t+vr∂vθ∂r−vrvθr)θ^+∂vz∂tz^\mathbf{a} = \left(
\frac{\partial v_r}{\partial t} + v_r \frac{\partial v_r}{\partial r} + \frac{v_\theta^2}{r}
\right) \hat{r} + \left( \frac{\partial v_\theta}{\partial t} + v_r \frac{\partial
v_\theta}{\partial r} - \frac{v_r v_\theta}{r} \right) \hat{\theta} + \frac{\partial
v_z}{\partial t} \hat{z}

Differential Equation of Mass Conservation

9. Write and explain the continuity equation for compressible flow.

o ∂ρ∂t+∇⋅(ρv)=0\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \nabla \cdot (\rho \mathbf{v}) = 0

This ensures mass conservation, accounting for density changes.

10. Derive the equation of continuity for incompressible flow.

o For incompressible flow (ρ=constant\rho = \text{constant}): ∇⋅v=0\nabla \cdot

\mathbf{v} = 0

11. How does the continuity equation simplify for 1D steady flow?

o For 1D steady flow: Av=constantA v = \text{constant}

Streamline, Pathline, Streakline, Stream Tube

12. Define streamline and give its equation in Cartesian coordinates.

o A curve tangential to the velocity vector at every point.

Equation: dydx=vyvx\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{v_y}{v_x}

13. Differentiate between streamline, pathline, and streakline.

o Streamline: Instantaneous direction of flow.

o Pathline: Trajectory of a single particle over time.

o Streakline: Line formed by all particles passing through a fixed point.

14. Why can’t two streamlines intersect?

o Intersecting streamlines imply multiple velocities at a point, which is impossible.

15. Explain the concept of a stream tube and its applications.

o A stream tube is a bundle of streamlines forming a tubular structure. It is used to

analyze flow in confined areas like pipes.

Steady and Unsteady Flow, Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow

 16. What is the primary difference between steady and unsteady flow?

o Steady flow: Fluid properties at a point do not change with time.

o Unsteady flow: Properties change with time.

17. Describe uniform and non-uniform flow with examples.

o Uniform flow: Velocity is constant over a region (e.g., flow in a straight pipe).

o Non-uniform flow: Velocity varies spatially (e.g., flow through a nozzle).

18. Which type of acceleration is present in non-uniform flow?

o Convective acceleration.

Rotational and Irrotational Flows

19. Define rotational and irrotational flow.

o Rotational flow: Fluid particles exhibit angular motion.

o Irrotational flow: No angular motion, ∇×v=0\nabla \times \mathbf{v} = 0.

20. What is the condition for irrotational flow in terms of vorticity?

o ∇×v=0\nabla \times \mathbf{v} = 0 (zero vorticity).

21. Explain the physical significance of vorticity in fluid flow.

o Vorticity represents the local rotation or spin of fluid elements.

Vorticity

22. What is vorticity, and how is it mathematically expressed?

o Vorticity is a measure of rotation: ω=∇×v\boldsymbol{\omega} = \nabla \times

\mathbf{v}

23. How does vorticity relate to angular velocity?

o Vorticity is twice the angular velocity.

24. State and explain the condition for zero vorticity in 2D flow.

o For 2D irrotational flow, ∂vy∂x=∂vx∂y\frac{\partial v_y}{\partial x} = \frac{\partial

v_x}{\partial y}.

Stream Function and Velocity Potential Function

 25. Define stream function and give its properties.

o A scalar function whose contours are streamlines. Properties:

vx=∂ψ∂y,vy=−∂ψ∂xv_x = \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial y}, v_y = -\frac{\partial
\psi}{\partial x}.

26. What is the relationship between streamlines and stream function?

o Streamlines are contours of the stream function (ψ=constant\psi = \text{constant}).

27. Explain velocity potential function and its significance.

o A scalar function (ϕ\phi) for irrotational flow, where v=∇ϕ\mathbf{v} = \nabla \phi.

28. Derive the Laplace equation for velocity potential in incompressible flow.

o From ∇⋅v=0\nabla \cdot \mathbf{v} = 0, for v=∇ϕ\mathbf{v} = \nabla \phi:

∇2ϕ=0\nabla^2 \phi = 0

29. How are streamlines and equipotential lines related?

o They are orthogonal.

Flow Net

30. What is a flow net, and what is its purpose in fluid mechanics?

o A graphical representation of streamlines and equipotential lines. It visualizes flow

patterns and pressure distribution.

31. List the assumptions made while drawing a flow net.

o Flow is steady, incompressible, and irrotational.

32. Explain the relationship between streamlines and equipotential lines in a flow net.

o They intersect at right angles.

33. Describe the application of flow nets in analyzing fluid flow.

o Used to determine velocity, pressure, and discharge in complex flow regions.

MODULE 3

Here are the detailed answers to the additional probable questions:

Q12: Derive the relationship between discharge and velocity in a venturimeter.

Answer:
A venturimeter is based on the Bernoulli equation and continuity equation.

• Bernoulli equation between points 11 (upstream) and 22 (throat):

P1+12ρV12=P2+12ρV22P_1 + \frac{1}{2}\rho V_1^2 = P_2 + \frac{1}{2}\rho V_2^2

Rearranging:

P1−P2=ρ2(V22−V12)P_1 - P_2 = \frac{\rho}{2}(V_2^2 - V_1^2)

• From the continuity equation:

A1V1=A2V2 ⟹ V1=A2A1V2A_1V_1 = A_2V_2 \implies V_1 = \frac{A_2}{A_1}V_2

Substitute V1V_1 into the Bernoulli equation:

P1−P2=ρ2[V22−(A2A1)2V22]P_1 - P_2 = \frac{\rho}{2}\left[V_2^2 -

\left(\frac{A_2}{A_1}\right)^2V_2^2\right]

Solve for V2V_2:

V2=2(P1−P2)ρ[1−(A2A1)2]V_2 = \sqrt{\frac{2(P_1 - P_2)}{\rho \left[1 -

\left(\frac{A_2}{A_1}\right)^2\right]}}

The discharge QQ:

Q=A2V2Q = A_2V_2

Q13: How does the vena contracta affect the flow through an orifice?

Answer:

• The vena contracta is the point where the fluid stream contracts to its minimum cross-sectional
area after passing through the orifice.

• Effects:

o Reduces the actual flow area compared to the orifice size.

o Increases the velocity of the fluid at the vena contracta.

 o Reduces the discharge coefficient (CdC_d) due to energy losses.

The hydraulic coefficients, like the coefficient of contraction (CcC_c), account for this phenomenon.

Q14: Discuss the impact of Reynolds number on boundary layer separation.

Answer:

• Reynolds Number (ReRe):

Re=ρVLμRe = \frac{\rho VL}{\mu}

Where ρ\rho is fluid density, VV is velocity, LL is characteristic length, and μ\mu is dynamic viscosity.

• Impact on Boundary Layer:

o Low ReRe: Laminar flow, boundary layer remains attached for a longer distance.

o High ReRe: Turbulent flow, higher momentum in the boundary layer, delaying
separation.

o Critical ReRe: Transition between laminar and turbulent flow affects flow separation and
drag.

Boundary layer separation occurs when the adverse pressure gradient causes the boundary layer to
reverse its flow direction.

Q15: Why are dimensionless numbers crucial in modeling and simulations?

Answer:
Dimensionless numbers simplify complex fluid flow problems by providing a universal framework for
comparison.

1. Simplification: Reduces the number of variables in governing equations.

2. Scalability: Allows results from small-scale models to be applied to full-scale problems.

3. Universality: Enables comparison across different fluids and geometries.

4. Insight: Reveals dominant forces in a system (e.g., inertial, viscous, gravitational).

For example:

• Reynolds Number helps classify flow regimes.

• Froude Number is used in hydraulic modeling.

These detailed explanations should prepare you well for interviews and exams!
MODULE 3
Here’s a list of probable and important questions with detailed answers for the topic covering Laminar
and Turbulent Flow, Reynolds Number, Pressure Drop and Head Loss in Pipes, Darcy-Weisbach
Equation, Steady Laminar Flow, and Couette Flow:

1. Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Q1: Differentiate between laminar and turbulent flow.

Answer:

Property Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

Reynolds Number Re<2000Re < 2000 Re>4000Re > 4000

Flow Pattern Smooth, parallel layers Random, chaotic

Velocity Profile Parabolic Flatter due to mixing

Energy Loss Lower Higher due to eddies

Example Flow of oil in small pipes Flow of air in large ducts

Q2: What is the critical Reynolds number, and why is it important?

Answer:
The critical Reynolds number is the value at which flow transitions from laminar to turbulent.

• For flow in circular pipes, Rec≈2000Re_c \approx 2000 (laminar-turbulent boundary).

• Importance: Determines the flow regime and influences pressure drop, heat transfer, and energy
losses.

2. Pressure Drop and Head Loss in Pipes

Q3: What are the factors affecting pressure drop in a pipe?

Answer:

1. Fluid properties: Density (ρ\rho) and viscosity (μ\mu).

2. Pipe characteristics: Diameter (DD), length (LL), and roughness.

3. Flow rate: Affects velocity and Reynolds number.

4. Flow regime: Laminar or turbulent flow.

Q4: What is the relationship between head loss and pressure drop?

Answer:

hf=ΔPρgh_f = \frac{\Delta P}{\rho g}

Where:

• hfh_f: Head loss (m).

• ΔP\Delta P: Pressure drop (Pa).

• ρ\rho: Density (kg/m³).

• gg: Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²).

Q5: Derive Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss.

Answer:
The Darcy-Weisbach equation relates head loss to flow parameters:

hf=fLDV22gh_f = f \frac{L}{D} \frac{V^2}{2g}

Where:

• ff: Friction factor.

• LL: Length of the pipe (m).

• DD: Diameter of the pipe (m).

• VV: Velocity of the fluid (m/s).

• gg: Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²).

Friction factor (ff) depends on Reynolds number and pipe roughness.

3. Steady Laminar Flow Through Circular Pipes (Hagen-Poiseuille Flow)

Q6: Derive the expression for velocity distribution in laminar flow through a circular pipe.

Answer:

• Start with Navier-Stokes equation in cylindrical coordinates assuming steady, incompressible

flow.

• The velocity profile is:

V(r)=ΔP4μL(R2−r2)V(r) = \frac{\Delta P}{4 \mu L} (R^2 - r^2)

Where:
 • ΔP\Delta P: Pressure drop across the pipe.

• μ\mu: Dynamic viscosity.

• RR: Pipe radius.

• rr: Radial distance from the center.

Q7: What is the volumetric flow rate for laminar flow in a pipe?

Answer:
From the velocity profile:

Q=πR4ΔP8μLQ = \frac{\pi R^4 \Delta P}{8 \mu L}

This is known as the Hagen-Poiseuille equation.

4. Flow Between Parallel Plates

Q8: Derive the velocity profile for laminar flow between two parallel plates.

Answer:
For two parallel plates separated by distance 2h2h, with no-slip conditions:

V(y)=12μΔPL(h2−y2)V(y) = \frac{1}{2\mu} \frac{\Delta P}{L} (h^2 - y^2)

Where:

• yy: Distance from the centerline.

• ΔP\Delta P: Pressure drop.

The flow rate:

Q=2h33μΔPLQ = \frac{2h^3}{3\mu} \frac{\Delta P}{L}

5. Couette Flow

Q9: What is Couette flow, and where is it observed?

Answer:
Couette flow refers to the flow of a viscous fluid between two parallel plates when one plate is
stationary, and the other moves at a constant velocity.

• Observed in lubrication systems, shear experiments, and industrial coating processes.

Q10: Derive the velocity profile for Couette flow.

Answer:
For plates separated by distance hh:
 • Stationary plate at y=0y = 0.

• Moving plate at y=hy = h, velocity UU.

The velocity profile is linear:

V(y)=UhyV(y) = \frac{U}{h} y

6. Miscellaneous

Q11: What is the significance of the Darcy friction factor?

Answer:
The Darcy friction factor quantifies resistance to flow due to pipe friction.

• In laminar flow: f=64Ref = \frac{64}{Re}.

• In turbulent flow: ff depends on ReRe and pipe roughness (from Moody diagram).

Q12: Why is head loss higher in turbulent flow compared to laminar flow?

Answer:
In turbulent flow, chaotic eddies and mixing increase energy dissipation, leading to greater friction and
higher head loss.

Q13: What are the assumptions in the Hagen-Poiseuille equation?

Answer:

1. Steady, incompressible flow.

2. Laminar flow (Re<2000Re < 2000).

3. No-slip condition at the walls.

4. Circular pipe with constant cross-section.

These questions and answers cover theoretical, derivation-based, and practical aspects of the topic and
are essential for exams or interviews.

MODULE 4
Here’s a list of probable and important questions with detailed answers for the topic covering
Laminar and Turbulent Flow, Reynolds Number, Pressure Drop and Head Loss in Pipes, Darcy-
Weisbach Equation, Steady Laminar Flow, and Couette Flow:

1. Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Q1: Differentiate between laminar and turbulent flow.
Answer:

Property Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

Reynolds Number Re<2000Re < 2000 Re>4000Re > 4000

Flow Pattern Smooth, parallel layers Random, chaotic

Velocity Profile Parabolic Flatter due to mixing

Energy Loss Lower Higher due to eddies

Example Flow of oil in small pipes Flow of air in large ducts

Q2: What is the critical Reynolds number, and why is it important?

Answer:
The critical Reynolds number is the value at which flow transitions from laminar to turbulent.
• For flow in circular pipes, Rec≈2000Re_c \approx 2000 (laminar-turbulent boundary).
• Importance: Determines the flow regime and influences pressure drop, heat transfer,
and energy losses.

2. Pressure Drop and Head Loss in Pipes

Q3: What are the factors affecting pressure drop in a pipe?
Answer:
1. Fluid properties: Density (ρ\rho) and viscosity (μ\mu).
2. Pipe characteristics: Diameter (DD), length (LL), and roughness.
3. Flow rate: Affects velocity and Reynolds number.
4. Flow regime: Laminar or turbulent flow.
Q4: What is the relationship between head loss and pressure drop?
Answer:
hf=ΔPρgh_f = \frac{\Delta P}{\rho g}
Where:
• hfh_f: Head loss (m).
• ΔP\Delta P: Pressure drop (Pa).
• ρ\rho: Density (kg/m³).
• gg: Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²).

Q5: Derive Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss.

Answer:
The Darcy-Weisbach equation relates head loss to flow parameters:
hf=fLDV22gh_f = f \frac{L}{D} \frac{V^2}{2g}
Where:
• ff: Friction factor.
• LL: Length of the pipe (m).
• DD: Diameter of the pipe (m).
• VV: Velocity of the fluid (m/s).
• gg: Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²).
Friction factor (ff) depends on Reynolds number and pipe roughness.

3. Steady Laminar Flow Through Circular Pipes (Hagen-Poiseuille Flow)

Q6: Derive the expression for velocity distribution in laminar flow through a circular pipe.
Answer:
• Start with Navier-Stokes equation in cylindrical coordinates assuming steady,
incompressible flow.
• The velocity profile is:
V(r)=ΔP4μL(R2−r2)V(r) = \frac{\Delta P}{4 \mu L} (R^2 - r^2)
Where:
• ΔP\Delta P: Pressure drop across the pipe.
• μ\mu: Dynamic viscosity.
• RR: Pipe radius.
• rr: Radial distance from the center.
Q7: What is the volumetric flow rate for laminar flow in a pipe?
Answer:
From the velocity profile:
Q=πR4ΔP8μLQ = \frac{\pi R^4 \Delta P}{8 \mu L}
This is known as the Hagen-Poiseuille equation.

4. Flow Between Parallel Plates

Q8: Derive the velocity profile for laminar flow between two parallel plates.
Answer:
For two parallel plates separated by distance 2h2h, with no-slip conditions:
V(y)=12μΔPL(h2−y2)V(y) = \frac{1}{2\mu} \frac{\Delta P}{L} (h^2 - y^2)
Where:
• yy: Distance from the centerline.
• ΔP\Delta P: Pressure drop.
The flow rate:
Q=2h33μΔPLQ = \frac{2h^3}{3\mu} \frac{\Delta P}{L}

5. Couette Flow
Q9: What is Couette flow, and where is it observed?
Answer:
Couette flow refers to the flow of a viscous fluid between two parallel plates when one plate
is stationary, and the other moves at a constant velocity.
• Observed in lubrication systems, shear experiments, and industrial coating processes.
Q10: Derive the velocity profile for Couette flow.
Answer:
For plates separated by distance hh:
• Stationary plate at y=0y = 0.
• Moving plate at y=hy = h, velocity UU.
The velocity profile is linear:
V(y)=UhyV(y) = \frac{U}{h} y

6. Miscellaneous
Q11: What is the significance of the Darcy friction factor?
Answer:
The Darcy friction factor quantifies resistance to flow due to pipe friction.
• In laminar flow: f=64Ref = \frac{64}{Re}.
• In turbulent flow: ff depends on ReRe and pipe roughness (from Moody diagram).
Q12: Why is head loss higher in turbulent flow compared to laminar flow?
Answer:
In turbulent flow, chaotic eddies and mixing increase energy dissipation, leading to greater
friction and higher head loss.
Q13: What are the assumptions in the Hagen-Poiseuille equation?
Answer:
1. Steady, incompressible flow.
2. Laminar flow (Re<2000Re < 2000).
3. No-slip condition at the walls.
4. Circular pipe with constant cross-section.

These questions and answers cover theoretical, derivation-based, and practical aspects of the
topic and are essential for exams or interviews.