Operating System Mainframe Systems

It is a program (software) that acts as Batch Systems

an intermediary (interface) between a user of
• First rudimentary operating system.
a computer and the computer hardware.
• Reduce setup time by batching
It provides an environment in which a
similar jobs (that is jobs with
user may execute programs
common needs are batched)
Computer System Components
• machine runs only one application
User- people, machines, other computers
• Automatic job sequencing–
System and Application Programs-define the automatically transfers control from
ways in which the system resources are used one job to another.
to solve the computing problems of the users
• Resident monitor
(compilers, database systems, video games,
business programs). initial control in monitor
control transfers to job
Operating System-Acts as an intermediary
when job completes control
Computer Hardware - provides basic transfers back to monitor
computing resources (CPU, memory, I/O Multiprogrammed Batch Systems
devices).
To ensure that the CPU is not kept idle:
Operating System goals
 Several jobs are kept in main memory
1. To provide a convenient environment at the same time; and

2. To use the computer hardware in an  The CPU is multiplexed (partitioned)

efficient manner (ensuring good among them.
performance).
Multiprogramming - some commands are
Operating System Views/Perspectives executed from one program, then that
program is suspended, and then some
Resource allocator – manages and allocates
commands are executed from the next
resources.
program, and so on.
Control program – controls the execution of
• Allows the CPU to process multiple
user programs and operations of I/O devices.
programs
Kernel – the one program running at all times
• While one program (job) is waiting for
(all else being application programs).
an I/O operation to complete, the
CPU is switched to execute another
program rather than remaining idle
during I/O time.
 • A program is resumed at the point and do not need advanced CPU
where it was suspended when it gets utilization of protection features.
its turn to use the CPU again.
• May run several different types of
operating systems

Time-Sharing Systems–Interactive Multiprocessor systems

Computing
Parallel Systems
• Allow many users to share one
• Multiprocessor systems with more
machine simultaneously
than one CPU in close
• The CPU is multiplexed among communication.
several jobs that are kept in memory
• Tightly coupled system – processors
and on disk (the CPU is allocated to a
share memory and a clock;
job only if the job is in memory).
communication usually takes place
• A job is swapped in and out of through the shared memory.
memory to the disk.
• Advantages of parallel system:
• On-line communication between the
–Increased throughput
user and the system is provided;
–Economical
when the operating system finishes
–Increased reliability
the execution of one command, it
• graceful degradation
seeks the next “control statement”
•
from the user’s keyboard.
• Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
• On-line system must be available for
–Each processor runs an
users to access data and code
identical copy of the
(instructions).
operating system.
– Many processes can run at
once without performance
Desktop Systems
deterioration.
• Personal computers – computer – Most modern operating
system dedicated to a single user. systems support SMP
• Asymmetric multiprocessing
• I/O devices – keyboards, mice, display
screens, small printers. – Each processor is assigned a
specific task; master
• User convenience and
processor schedules and
responsiveness.
allocated work to slave
• Can adopt technology developed for processors.
larger operating system’ often – More common in extremely
individuals have sole use of computer large systems
 Distributed Systems control systems, and some display
systems.
• Distribute the computation among
several physical processors. • Well-defined fixed-time constraints.

• Loosely coupled system – each • Real-Time systems may be either

processor has its own local memory; hard or soft real-time.
processors communicate with one
• Hard real-time:
another through various
communications lines, such as high-  Secondary storage limited or
speed buses or telephone lines. absent, data stored in short
term memory, or read-only
• Advantages of distributed systems.
memory (ROM)
– Resources Sharing
 Conflicts with time-sharing
– Computation speed up – load
systems, not supported by
sharing
general-purpose operating
– Reliability
systems.
– Communications
• Soft real-time
• Requires networking infrastructure.
 Limited utility in industrial
• Local area networks (LAN) or Wide
control or robotics
area networks (WAN)
• May be either client-server or peer-  Useful in applications
to-peer systems. (multimedia, virtual reality)
requiring advanced
Clustered Systems operating-system features.
• Clustering allows two or more
Handheld Systems
systems to share storage.
• Provides high availability. • Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
• Asymmetric clustering: one server
• Cellular telephones
runs the application while another
server is on standby mode.
• Symmetric clustering: all N hosts are
Computing Environments
running the application and
monitoring each other. • Traditional computing

• Web-Based Computing
Real-Time Systems
• Embedded Computing
• Often used as control devices in a
dedicated application such as
controlling scientific experiments,
medical imaging systems, industrial
 Module 2 Operating System Structures • Trap - software generated interrupt
caused either by an error or a user
request.
Execution sequence:
Interrupt Handling
 Fetch Instruction at PC
• Types of interrupt
 Decode
 Execute (possibly using registers) – Polling
 Write results to registers/mem – Vectored interrupt system
 PC = Next Instruction(PC) • Incoming interrupts are disabled
 Repeat while another interrupt is being
processed to prevent a lost interrupt.
Computer System Organization
I/O Structure
• I/O devices and the CPU execute
concurrently. • Synchronous I/O
• Each device controller is in charge of
 wait instruction idles CPU
a particular device type
until next interrupt
– Each device controller has a
 no simultaneous I/O
local buffer. I/O is from the
processing, at most one
device to local buffer of
outstanding I/O request
controller
at a time.
• CPU moves data from/to main
memory to/from the local buffers • Asynchronous I/O - After I/O is
• Device controller interrupts CPU on initiated, control returns to user
completion of I/O program without waiting for I/O
completion.

Interrupts  System call

 Device Status table - holds
• Interrupt transfers control to the
type, address and state for
interrupt service routine
each device
–Interrupt Service Routine:  OS indexes into I/O device
Segments of code that table to determine device
determine action to be taken status and modify table entry
for each type of interrupt. to include interrupt.
– Interrupt vector contains the
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
address of service routines.
• OS preserves the state of the CPU • Used for high speed I/O devices able
to transmit information at close to
– stores registers and the
memory speeds.
program counter (address of
interrupted instruction).
 • Device controller transfers blocks of 1. User mode - execution done on behalf
data from buffer storage directly to of a user.
main memory without CPU
2. Monitor mode (supervisor/kernel/system
intervention.
mode) - execution done on behalf of
• Only one interrupt is generated per operating system.
block, rather than one per byte (or
I/O Protection
word).
• All I/O instructions are privileged
Storage Structure
instructions.
• Main memory - only large storage
• Must ensure that a user program
media that the CPU can access
could never gain control of the
directly.
computer in monitor mode, for e.g. a
• Secondary storage - extension of user program that as part of its
main memory that has large execution, stores a new address in
nonvolatile storage capacity. the interrupt vector.

Storage Hierarchy Memory Protection

• Storage systems are organized in a • Must provide memory protection at

hierarchy based on least for the interrupt vector and the
interrupt service routines.
– Speed
– Cost • To provide memory protection, add
– Volatility two registers that determine the
• Caching - process of copying range of legal addresses a program
information into faster storage may address.
system; main memory can be viewed
– Base Register - holds smallest
as fast cache for secondary storage.
legal physical memory
address.
– Limit register - contains the
Hardware Protection
size of the range.
Dual-mode operation • Memory outside the defined range is
protected.
• Sharing system resources requires
operating system to ensure that an • When executing in monitor mode,
incorrect program cannot cause the OS has unrestricted access to
other programs to execute both monitor and users’ memory.
incorrectly.

• Provide hardware support to

differentiate between at least two
modes of operation:
CPU Protection  Communications-interprocess
and intersystem
• Timer - interrupts computer after
 Error Detection-in hardware, I/O
specified period to ensure that OS
devices, user programs
maintains control.
• Services for providing efficient
Timer is decremented every
system operation
clock tick.
When timer reaches a value  Resource Allocation - for
of 0, an interrupt occurs. simultaneously executing jobs
• Timer is commonly used to  Accounting-for account
implement time sharing. billing and usage statistics
 Protection-ensure access to
• Timer is also used to compute the
system resources is controlled
current time.
System Programs
• Load timer is a privileged instruction.
• Convenient environment for program
System Calls
development and execution. User
• Interface between running program view of OS is defined by system
and the OS. programs, not system calls.

– Assembly language
instructions (macros and
subroutines)
– Some higher level languages
allow system calls to be made
directly (e.g. C)
• Passing parameters between a
running program and OS via
registers, memory tables or stack.

Operating System Services

 Services that provide user-interfaces

to OS
 Program execution-load program
into memory and run it
 I/O Operations - since users
cannot execute I/O operations
directly
 File System Manipulation - read,
write, create, delete files
Module 3 PROCESSES  ready: The process is waiting to be
assigned to a processor.
 running: Instructions are being
Process executed.
 waiting: The process is waiting for
• It is the unit of work in most systems
some event to occur.
(e.g. time-sharing system);
 terminated: The process has finished
• It is a program in execution; process
execution.
execution must progress in
sequential fashion. Program counter contains the memory
• It has a set of associated resources address of the next instruction to be
executed for this process.
Although 2 processes may be associated with
Note: This information must be saved when
the same program, they are considered 2
an interrupt occurs to allow the process to be
separate execution sequences.
continued afterward
What does a process include?
CPU registers, which include: accumulators,
• program counter (specifies the next index registers, stack pointers, general
instruction to be executed) purpose registers,
• stack (contains temporary data e.g.
Note: This information must be saved when
method parameters)
an interrupt occurs to allow the process to be
• data section (contains global
continued afterward
variables)
• text section (program code) Memory-management information includes:
value of the base and limit registers, page
tables, segment tables
Process Control Block (PCB)
I/O status information, which includes: list of
PCB - Representation of a process in the I/O devices allocated to this process, list of
operating system. open files, etc.

Information associated with each process. CPU scheduling information, which includes:
process priority, pointers to scheduling
 Process state
queues, scheduling parameters
 Program counter
 CPU registers Accounting information, which includes:
 CPU scheduling information amount of CPU and real time used, time
 Memory-management information limits, account numbers, job or process
 Accounting information number, etc.
 I/O status information

As a process executes, it changes state

 new: The process is being created.

As process is created (enters the system), it Schedulers
is put on a job queue.
Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler)
Job queue – set of all processes in the system.
 selects which processes should be
• If there is not enough room in the brought into the ready queue.
main memory for all processes in the  is invoked very infrequently (seconds,
job queue, job scheduling is done. minutes)  (may be slow).
• Long-term scheduler (or job  controls the degree of
scheduler) – selects which processes multiprogramming.
should be brought into the ready
Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler)
queue.
 selects which process should be
As process is loaded in the memory, it is kept executed next and allocates CPU.
in the ready queue.  is invoked very frequently
(milliseconds)  (must be fast).
Ready queue - contains set of all processes
residing in main memory, ready and waiting I/O – CPU bound Processes
to execute.
• Processes can be described as either:
Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) –
 I/O-bound process – spends more
selects which process should be executed
time doing I/O than
(dispatched) next and allocates CPU.
computations, many short CPU
Dispatcher – a module that gives control of bursts.
the CPU to the process selected by the short  CPU-bound process – spends
term scheduler more time doing computations;
few very long CPU bursts.

Long-term scheduler should select a good

• Job queue – set of all processes in the
process mix of I/O bound and CPU bound
system.
processes.
• Ready queue – set of all processes
Medium term
residing in main memory, ready and
waiting to execute.  an intermediate level queue used in
systems with virtual memory or
• Device queues – set of processes
timesharing;
waiting for an I/O device.
 removes processes from the memory
and reintroduced later (swapping)
 reduces the degree of multi
programming
Summary Process Creation

• Swapping – in some other time, the • Parent process create children

process can be reintroduced and processes, which, in turn create other
continued where it left off processes, forming a tree of
processes.
• Context Switch – switching the CPU
from one process to another • Resource sharing

• Dispatcher – a module that gives • Parent and children share all

control of the CPU to the process resources.
selected by the short term scheduler • Children share subset of
parent’s resources.
Suspended Processes
• Execution
 Processor is faster than I/O so all
• Parent and children execute
processes could be waiting for I/O
concurrently.
 Swap these processes to disk to free • Parent waits until children
up more memory terminate.
• Address space
 Waiting or blocked state becomes
suspended state when swapped to • Child is a duplicate of parent.
disk • Child has a program loaded
into it (treated as a new
 Two new states
process).
 Blocked, suspend
Process Termination
 Ready, suspend
• Process executes last statement and
Additional States
asks the operating system to decide it
• Ready – process in main memory and (exit).
available for execution
 Output data from child to
• Blocked/Waiting – process in main parent (via wait).
memory and awaiting an event  Process’ resources are
deallocated by operating
• Blocked/Suspend – process in
system.
secondary memory and awaiting an
event

• Ready/Suspend – process in
secondary memory and available for
execution
 • Parent may terminate execution of
children processes (abort).

 Child has exceeded allocated

resources.
 Task assigned to child is no
longer required.
 Parent is exiting.
 Operating system
does not allow child to
continue if its parent
terminates.
 Cascading termination

Definition of terms

Address space – list of memory locations

from some minimum (usually 0) to some
maximum, which the process can read and
write. It contains the executable program,
program’s data and stack.

System call – interface between operating

system and process. It is function called by an
application to invoke a kernel service.

Interrupt – hardware mechanism that

enables a device to notify the CPU

Module 4 (CPU Scheduling)

* As process is loaded in the memory, it is

kept in the ready queue.

Ready queue - contains set of all processes

residing in main memory, ready and waiting
to execute.