Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes Written by Tim Filtness

Section 3: Reproduction and inheritance

a) Rep
Reproduction

There are two types of reproduction;

Sexual: reproduction in which two gametes (sex cells) fuse to

create a new offspring that is genetically different to the parents.
Two parents are involved.

Asexual: reproduction without fusion of gametes. It involves one

parent only and produces offspring that are genetically identical to
the parent.

Two definitions to learn:

Fertilization: the process in which a male and a female gamete fuse

to form a zygote

Zygote: a cell that is the result of fertilization. It will divide by

mitosis to form an embryo.

Reproduction in Flowering plants:

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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes Written by Tim Filtness

Part Function
Petal Colourful part of the flower. Attracts insects in
insect-pollinated plants
Anther Male part of the plant. Makes pollen.

Filament Joins the anther to the rest of the flower.

Stigma Female part of the plant. Receives pollen.

Ovary Contains the ovules

Ovule Eggs – female gametes

Pollen Male gamete

Nectary Makes nectar to attract insects in insect-pollinated

plants
Sepal Protects the flower when it is in bud

Wind Pollinated Insect Pollinated

- Anthers are large and outside - Anthers are small and inside the
the flower flower
- Stigma is large and outside the - Stigma is small and inside the
flower flower
- Tiny colourless petals - Large colourful petals
- Pollen made in huge quantities - Has a nectary
- No nectary
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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes Written by Tim Filtness

Pollination: the deposition of pollen from the anther of one flower

onto the stigma of a different flower of the same species.

When pollination occurs, the pollen grows a pollen tube down the
stigma of the flower. The pollen tube carries the nucleus of the
pollen into the ovary, where it fuses with an ovule (fertilisation).

When fertilization has happen the flower will change in the

following ways;

1. Petals die and fall away

2. Fertilized ovule turns into a seed
3. Ovary may fill with sugars and turn into a fruit

In order to germinate (grow into a new plant) seeds need the

following conditions;

- Presence of water
- Presence of O2 (seed needs to respire)
- Correct temperature (recall enzymes work at optimum temp)

When a seed germinates the cells inside it start to grow rapidly and
form the new shoot and root. The seed contains a limited store of
carbohydrate and lipid, which it uses as a fuel for respiration to
provide the energy for growth. During this stage the seed must
produce leaves so it can begin to photosynthesize. The danger is
that the seed will run out of stored energy before it makes leaves.
If this happens it will die.

Plants can also reproduce asexually;

Natural methods Artificial methods

Runners – a root from one plant Cuttings – a branch from one plant is
grows a separate shoot, which grows removed and planted in soil. It will
into a new plant. Eventually the grow new roots and become a new
original root connecting the two plant.
plants breaks down, separating the
See also grafting (not mentioned on
plants
syllabus)
See also rhizomes, corms, bulbs and
tubers (not mentioned on syllabus)
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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes Written by Tim Filtness
Reproduction in Humans:

Male reproductive System:

Female reproductive system:

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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes Written by Tim Filtness

Pregnancy:

When the egg and sperm fuse (fertilisation) the resulting zygote
begins to divide by mitosis (see next section) and becomes an
embryo. The embryo quickly develops a placenta, which brings the
mother’s blood supply very close to the foetus’ blood supply. The
two blood streams never mix (otherwise the mother’s white blood
cells would attack the foetus!), but they are close enough for
diffusion to occur

Diffuse from foetus to mother - CO2, water, urea

Diffuse from mother to foetus- O2, glucose, amino acids, minerals

The placenta is adapted for diffusion in much the same way as

other exchange organs, i.e. it has;

- Huge surface area (it has lots of villi-like projections)

- Only a few cells thick
- Blood supplies keep the concentration gradients high
- Counter-current system (this one’s an A-level idea… look it up?!)

As well as the placenta the embryo also develops an amnion

(membrane sac, which fills up with amniotic fluid). This helps
cushion the embryo and protects it.

Reproductive Hormones:

During puberty boys make testosterone in their testes and girls

make oestrogen in their ovaries.

Testosterone:

- Causes testes to drop & penis to enlarge

- Triggers spermatogenesis (sperm manufacture)
- Causes growth of pubic and body hair
- Causes larynx to enlarge (voice deepens)
- Causes muscles to grow

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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes Written by Tim Filtness

Oestrogen:

- Triggers menstruation to begin

- Causes maturation of vagina
- Causes breasts to grow
- Causes growth of pubic and body hair
- Causes hips to widen

Menstrual Cycle: Oestrogen

Causes the endometrium

LH
FSH (uterus lining) to grow.
Made by the pituitary
Made by the pituitary. Inhibits the release of
instead of FSH
FHS (so no more eggs
Causes the ova (egg) to
ripen) Causes the egg to be
ripen inside a follicle in
released (ovulation) on
the ovary.
Day 14
Ova starts to release
oestrogen as it ripens

NB.
Period
You only need to know Ovulation
Corpus luteum dies. about Oestrogen and
Egg is released into the
Progesterone levels fall Progesterone
fallopian tube, where it
Endometrium is no longer stands the best chance
maintained and it falls of being fertilised
away (this is a period)

FSH no longer inhibited.

Progesterone
Corpus Luteum
Maintains endometrium.
The empty follicle turns
Inhibits FSH release into a corpus luteum,
(don’t want an egg which starts to make
released as there is progesterone
already one waiting!)

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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes Written by Tim Filtness

b) Inheritance

The nucleus of every cell contains DNA. DNA is a genetic code.

Each instruction in the code is called a gene. Each gene tells the cell
how to make a specific protein. The proteins are what control the
cell (e.g. enzymes are proteins, so are structural proteins like
collagen). Sometimes more than one version of a gene occur. The
different versions are called alleles (i.e. we all have the gene for
iris pigment, but there are different colours of iris pigment, same
gene but different alleles)

DNA is a very long molecule. To stop it from breaking it is coiled up

inside the nucleus. The coiled up DNA forms a chromosome. Humans
have 23 different chromosomes inside their cells. We have two
copies of each chromosome, therefore, each cells contains 46
chromosomes. The haploid number is the number of different
chromosomes (i.e. 23) and the diploid number is the total number of
chromosomes in the cell (i.e. 46)

Key Word Summary:

This topic, more than any other, confuses people. Learn these
thoroughly!

DNA: A genetic code

Gene: One instruction in the code telling a cell how to make a

specific protein

Allele: A different version of a gene

Chromosome: Coiled up DNA

Haploid number: the number of different chromosomes in a cell

(23)

Diploid number: the total number of chromosomes in a cell (46)

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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes Written by Tim Filtness

Cell Division:

There are two types of cell division;

- Mitosis – used for growth, repair & asexual reproduction

- Meiosis – used to produce gametes for sexual reproduction

Mitosis Meiosis
1. Produces 2 daughter cells 1. Produces 4 gametes

2. Daughter cells are diploid (i.e. 2. Daughter cells are haploid (i.e.
only have 23 chromosomes) have 23 pairs of chromosomes)

3. Daughter cells are genetically 3. Gametes are genetically

identical to each other different to each other

4. Daughter cells are genetically 4. Gametes are genetically

identical to parent cell different to parent cell

5. Occurs in one stage 5. Occurs in two stages

6. Happens everywhere in the 6. Happens in reproductive organs

body only

Haploid Gamete 23 23 Haploid Gamete

Fertilisation

46 Diploid Zygote

Therefore, fertilization produces a diploid cell (which will grow by

mitosis) from two haploid gametes.

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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes Written by Tim Filtness

Each parent gives only one of each of the pairs of chromosomes to

their gametes. A pair of chromosomes will have exactly the same
genes on them, but not necessarily the same alleles! This is the
source of genetic variation in gametes.

Alleles for the same gene can be;

- Dominant – always affect the phenotype (allele represented with

capital letter)

- Recessive – never affect the phenotype in the presence of a

dominant allele (allele represented with lower case letter)

- Co-dominant – affect the phenotype equally in the presence of

another co-dominant allele (both alleles have capital letters)

Inheritance:

Inheritance patterns are always given using a genetic diagram. If

this comes up you get loads of marks for it, but only if you use the
genetic diagram!

A Genetic Diagram
♀ ♂
Parents’ Phenotype: Brown eyes Brown eyes

Parents’ Genotype: Bb Bb

Gametes: B b B b

F1 Genotype: B b

B BB Bb

b Bb bb

F1 Phenotype: 3 : 1 Brown eyes : blue eyes

Note the gametes are always put in circles

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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes Written by Tim Filtness

More Key Words:

Phenotype: physical appearance

Genotype: the combination of alleles an individual possesses

Heterozygous: two different alleles in genotype (i.e. B b)

Homozygous: both alleles the same in genotype (i.e. B B or b b)

Inheritance of gender is governed by the 23rd chromosome. Boys

have an X and a Y, girls have two X chromosomes

A Genetic Diagram
♀ ♂
Parents’ Phenotype: Mother Father

Parents’ Genotype: XX XY

Gametes: X X X Y

F1 Genotype: X X

X XX XX

Y XY XY

F1 Phenotype: 2:2 = 1:1 Boy : Girl

Note the gender of the baby is determined by the sperm!

Variation:

Variation within a species is produced by two factors

1. The environment
2. The genotype.

New alleles arise in the population through mutation

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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes Written by Tim Filtness

Mutation - a rare, random change in the genetic code of a gene.

The mutated gene will therefore produce a slightly different

protein to the original non-mutant gene. The new protein might;

1. Work just as well as it did before (neutral mutation)

2. Work better than before (beneficial mutation)
3. Work worse / not at all (harmful mutation)

Beneficial mutations give a selective advantage to the individual.

Individuals with this kind of mutated allele are more likely to
survive, reproduce and pass their alleles on. This is the basis of
Natural Selection

Natural Selection:

Darwin came up with this theory.

Darwin’s 1st Observation: Not all individuals survive

Darwin’s 2nd Observation: There is variation in a species

Darwin’s Conclusion: The better adapted individuals survive

(the “fittest”) and reproduce, passing
their alleles onto the next generation.

Over time this process leads to evolution.

Evolution: the formation of a new species from an original species

Mutations can be inherited or happen on their own. The frequency

that mutation occurs naturally can be increased by exposure to
radiation (e.g. gamma rays, X-rays and ultraviolet rays) and some
chemical mutagens (e.g. chemicals in tobacco).

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