Radiofrequency

Measurements

Spectrum Analyzers
The next slides material is taken from

• AGILENT “Spectrum Analysis Basics”

• TEKTRONIX’ “Fundamentals of Real-Time Spectrum Analysis”
• ROHDE&SCHWARZ “Key points of real time”

2
 Overview
What is Spectrum Analysis?

SPECTRUM ANALYZER 9 kHz - 26.5 GHz

8563A

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Overview
Types of Tests Made .

Modulation

Noise

Distortion

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 Overview
Frequency versus Time Domain

Amplitude
(power)

Time domain
Frequency Domain
Measurements
Measurements
Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics
 Overview
Different Types of Analyzers

Fourier Analyzer
Parallel filters measured
simultaneously
A
LCD shows full
spectral display

f1 f2 f

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Overview
Different Types of Analyzers

Swept Analyzer
Filter 'sweeps' over range
of interest
A
LCD shows full
spectral display

f1 f2 f

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Screen Parameters

10 DIV vertical: POWER [dBm]

10 DIV horizontal: FREQUENCY [Hz]
Instrument Screen

9
 Theory of Operation
Spectrum Analyzer Block Diagram

RF input
attenuator IF gain IF filter
mixer detector
Input
signal
Pre-Selector
Log
Or Low Pass Amp
Filter video
filter
local
oscillator
sweep
generator
Crystal
Reference CRT display

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Theory of Operation
Mixer MIXER
input

f LO- f sig f LO+ f sig

RF IF
f sig LO f sig f LO

f LO

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Frequency Scan

12
 Signal measurement
When a narrowband signal runs beneath the filter, the measured spectrum
draws the filter shape (it is a mathematical convolution)

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 Specifications
Resolution: Resolution Bandwidth

Mixer 3 dB Detector
3 dB BW
Input
Spectrum

IF Filter/
LO Resolution Bandwidth Filter
(RBW)
Sweep

RBW

Display

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 Specifications
Resolution: Resolution Bandwidth

10 kHz RBW

3 dB

10 kHz

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Screen example

16
Screen example

17
 Specifications
Resolution: RBW Type and Selectivity

3 dB
3 dB BW

60 dB

60 dB
BW

60 dB BW
Selectivity =
3 dB BW

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Filter Selectivity

19
 Specifications
Resolution: RBW Type and Selectivity

RBW = 3 kHz RBW = 10 kHz

Selectivity 15:1

3 dB

distortion
products
7.5 kHz

60 dB
60 dB BW
= 15 kHz

10 kHz 10 kHz

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Super-heterodyne detection

21
Detector – from Analog to Digital

For RBW < 1 kHz, the IF

filter is digitally realized
22
 Specifications
Resolution: Digital Resolution Bandwidths

Typical
Selectivity
Analog
ANALOG FILTER 15:1
Digital
5:1

DIGITAL FILTER

RES BW 100 Hz SPAN 3 kHz

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Theory of Operation
Detector DETECTOR

amplitud
e

"bins" Positive detection: largest value

in bin displayed
Negative detection: smallest value
in bin displayed
Sample detection: last value in bin
displayed

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Theory of Operation
Video Filter

VIDEO
FILTER

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Theory of Operation
Other Components

LO
SWEEP
GEN
frequency
LCD DISPLAY
RF INPUT
ATTENUATOR IF GAIN

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Theory of Operation
How it all works together
fs Signal Range LO Range
f LO- f s f LO
0 1 2 3 (GHz) f LO+ f s
fs
IF filter
0 1 4 5 6
mixer
fs 2 3
3.6
detector
6.5
input

3.6
f IF
sweep generator A

LO

f LO
0 1 2 3 (GHz) f
3 4 5 6 (GHz) LCD display
3.6 6.5

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Theory of Operation
Front Panel Operation
Primary functions
(Frequency, Amplitude,
Span)
Softkeys

SPECTRUM ANALYZER 9 kHz - 26.5 GHz

8563A

Control functions
(RBW, sweep time,
VBW)

RF Input Numeric
keypad
Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics
 Swept Spectrum Analyzer:
Measurement Time
The rise time of a filter (low-pass, but also band-pass) is inversely proportional to its
bandwidth, and if we include a constant of proportionality, k, then:

Rise time = T = k /RBW

The value of k is in the 2 to 3 range for the synchronously-tuned, near-Gaussian

filters used in many analyzers.

The number N of “equivalent points” on a screen is given by

N = Span / RBW

In conclusion, the minimum sweep time for a correct measurement is

3Span
ST  N  T 
RBW 2

29
 Specifications
Resolution: RBW Determines Measurement Time

Swept too fast

Penalty For Sweeping Too Fast

Is An Uncalibrated Display
Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics
 Specifications
Sensitivity/DANL
Mixer Detector
RF
Input
RES BW
Filter

LO

Sweep

A Spectrum Analyzer Generates and Amplifies Noise

Just Like Any Active Circuit
Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics
 Specifications
Sensitivity/DANL

Effective Level of Displayed Noise is a

Function of RF Input Attenuation
signal level

10 dB

Attenuation = 10 dB Attenuation = 20 dB

Signal-To-Noise Ratio Decreases as

RF Input Attenuation is Increased

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Attenuation - Noise Level (DANL)

33
 Noise Figure and DANL
The spectral density of thermal noise is equal to:

pT = kT  410-21 W/Hz  -174 dBm/Hz

 W J
At ambient temperature, and k  1.38 10   is the Boltzmann
-23

constant  Hz K K 

Noise Figure is defined as the ratio between the instrument noise level and the
thermal noise:

NF = DANL[measured noise in dBm] – 10 log[kT × RBW/(1 mW)]=

= DANL[measured noise in dBm] – 10 log(RBW/1 Hz) – (-174 dBm/Hz)
(in the approximation of equivalent-noise-bandwidth  RBW)

Noise figure is independent of IF-filter bandwidth, while the displayed averaged

noise level (DANL) on the analyzer changes with bandwidth.

A typical value for NF is 20-24 dB

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 Specifications
Sensitivity/DANL: IF Filter (RBW)

Displayed Noise is a Function of IF

Filter Bandwidth
100 kHz RBW

10 dB 10 kHz RBW
10 dB 1 kHz RBW

Decreased BW = Decreased Noise

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

RBW – Noise Level (DANL)

36
 Specifications
Sensitivity/DANL: VBW

Video BW Smoothes Noise for Easier

Identification of Low Level Signals

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 Specifications
Sensitivity/DANL

Sensitivity is the Smallest Signal That

Can Be Measured

2.2 dB
Signal
Equals
Noise

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Sensitivity/DANL

For Best Sensitivity Use:

 Narrowest Resolution BW

 Minimum RF Input Attenuation

 Sufficient Video Filtering

(Video BW < .01 Res BW)

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Accuracy

Absolute Relative
Amplitude Amplitude
in dBm in dB

Frequency
Relative
Frequency

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 Specifications
Accuracy: Frequency Readout Accuracy

Typical datasheet specification:

Spans < 2 MHz: _+ (freq. readout x freq. ref. accuracy

+ 1% of frequency span
+ 15% of resolution bandwidth
+ 10 Hz "residual error")

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Accuracy: Frequency Readout Accuracy Example

Single Marker Example:

2 GHz
400 kHz span
3 kHz RBW

-7
Calculation: (2x109 Hz) x (1.3x10 /yr.ref.error) = 260 Hz
1% of 400 kHz span = 4000 Hz
15% of 3 kHz RBW = 450 Hz
10 Hz residual error = 10 Hz
Total = +
_ 4720 Hz

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Accuracy: Relative Amplitude Accuracy

 Display fidelity
 Frequency response

 RF Input attenuator
 Reference level
 Resolution bandwidth
 Display scaling

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Accuracy: Relative Amplitude Accuracy - Freq. Response

Signals in the Same Harmonic Band

+1 dB

- 1 dB
BAND 1

Specification: ± 1 dB

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Accuracy: Relative Amplitude Accuracy

Relative
 RF Input attenuator Amplitude
in dB
 Reference level
 Resolution bandwidth
 Display scaling

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Accuracy: Absolute Amplitude Accuracy

Absolute
Amplitude
in dBm

 Calibrator accuracy

 Frequency response

 Reference level uncertainty

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 Specifications
Resolution

What Determines Resolution?

Resolution Residual FM
Bandwidth

RBW Type and

Selectivity Noise Sidebands

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 Specifications
Resolution: Residual FM

Residual FM
"Smears" the Signal
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 Specifications
Resolution: Noise Sidebands

Phase Noise

Noise Sidebands can prevent

resolution of unequal signals
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 Specifications
Distortion

Mixers Generate Distortion

Frequency Translated
Signals
Resultant

Signal To
Be Measured

Mixer Generated
Distortion

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 Specifications
Distortion

Most Influential Distortion is the

Second and Third Order

< -50 dBc < -40 dBc < -50 dBc

Two-Tone Intermod Harmonic Distortion

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 Specifications
Distortion

Distortion Products Increase as a Function

of Fundamental's Power

3 3
Power Third-order distortion
in dB
Second-order distortion
2f1- f 2 f1 f2 2f2- f 1

Two-Tone Intermod
2 3
Power
Second Order: 2 dB/dB of Fundamental in dB
Third Order: 3 dB/dB of Fundamental
f 2f 3f
Harmonic Distortion
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 Specifications
Distortion

Relative Amplitude Distortion Changes with

Input Power Level
1 dB
20 dB
1 dB
21 dB
3 dB
2 dB

f 2f 3f

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 Specifications
Distortion

Distortion is a Function of
Mixer Level
0 .

-20
DISTORTION, dBc

Second
-40 Order

-60

-80
Third
-100
Order
-60 -30 0 +30
TOI
POWER AT MIXER =
INPUT - ATTENUATOR SETTING dBm

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Dynamic Range
Signal-to-Noise Ratio Can Be Graphed
0
.
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO, dBc

-20
Displayed Noise in
-40 a 1 kHz RBW

-60

-80

-100
-60 -30 0 +30

Displayed Noise in POWER AT MIXER =

INPUT - ATTENUATOR SETTING dBm
a 100 Hz RBW

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Dynamic Range

Dynamic Range Can Be Presented Graphically

Maximum 2nd Order .
.

Dynamic Range
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO, dBc

-20
Maximum 3rd Order
Dynamic Range
-40

-60

-80

-100
-60 -30 0 +30
TOI SOI
POWER AT MIXER =
INPUT - ATTENUATOR SETTING dBm
Optimum Mixer
Levels

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Dynamic Range

Dynamic Range for Spur Search Depends on

Closeness to Carrier

Dynamic Range Dynamic Range

Limited By Noise Sidebands Limited By
dBc/Hz Compression/Noise

Noise Sidebands Displayed Average

Noise Level

100 kHz
to
1 MHz

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Dynamic Range

Actual Dynamic Range is the Minimum of:

Maximum dynamic range calculation

Calculated from:
 distortion
 sensitivity

Noise sidebands at the offset frequency

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Dynamic Range
+30 dBm MAXIMUM POWER LEVEL

-10 dBm MIXER COMPRESSION

-35 dBm THIRD-ORDER DISTORTION

LCD-DISPLAY MEASUREMENT SECOND-ORDER
RANGE -45 dBm DISTORTION
RANGE 145 dB
80 dB SIGNAL/NOISE
RANGE NOISE
105 dB
SIGNAL /3rd ORDER 0 dBc SIDEBANDS
DISTORTION
80 dB RANGE
INCREASING SIGNAL/ 2nd ORDER
DISTORTION SIGNAL/NOISE
BANDWIDTH OR 70 dB RANGE SIDEBANDS
ATTENUATION 60 dBc/1kHz

-115 dBm (1 kHz BW & 0 dB ATTENUATION) MINIMUM NOISE FLOOR

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 SPAN ZERO
Modulation Measurements: Time Domain

It was mentioned briefly that although a

spectrum analyzer is primarily used to
view signals in the frequency domain, it is
also possible to use the spectrum
analyzer to look at the time domain. This MARKER
is done with a feature called zero-span. 10 msec
This is useful for determining modulation 1.000 X
type or for demodulation.
The spectrum analyzer is set for a
frequency span of zero (hence the term
zero-span) with some nonzero sweep
time. The center frequency is set to the
carrier frequency and the resolution
bandwidth must be set large enough to
allow the modulation sidebands to be
CENTER 100 MHz SPAN 0 Hz
included in the measurement . The
RES BW 1 MHz VBW 3 MHz SWP 50 msec
analyzer will plot the amplitude of the
signal versus time, within the limitations
of its detector and video and RBWs.

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Specifications
Frequency Range

Low frequencies
for baseband and IF

Measuring harmonics
50 GHz and beyond!

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Higher Bands

62
LO Harmonics

63
Noise level for higher bands

64
External Mixer

65
External Mixer

66
Image shift

67
 Image suppress

MIN HOLD
function, which saves
the smaller value of
each display point

68
Modern Spectrum Analyzer:
Digital Receiver

69
Modern SA block diagram

70
Real-time Architecture

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Real-Time

72
Real-Time

73
 Measurement Time
The system is no-more swept: the local oscillator is at a fixed frequency and the
frequency measurement is made by an FFT technique.

If SPAN < RTB (real time bandwidth), the measurement time is limited by the
frequency resolution:

Acquisition time = T = 1 /RBW

We have to consider also the time needed for the FFT elaboration, but it is often
negligible (and some FFTs are made in parallel)

If SPAN > RTB, the local oscillator is moved for discrete steps, and the screen
spectrum is a collage of some FFT results (no more phase coherence in the whole
spectrum)

Screen time = SPAN / RTB × (1 /RBW )

For low RBW values it is much faster than swept analyzer (ST  3SPAN / RTB2)

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New measurement possibilities

75
4-port Reflectometer

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