ACTIVE FILTERS Some Terminologies:

Filter - a device that passes certain frequencies Frequency-response curve ‒ a graphical

and attenuates or rejects all other frequencies. representation of the relationship between
It is a frequency selective circuit. amplifier gain and operating frequency.

Passive Filters:

Passive filters contains only passive components

such as resistors, capacitors and inductors.

Active Filters:

Active filters contain active components such as

transistors and op-amps along with resistor,
capacitors and inductors.

Advantages of Active Filters: Corner or cut-off frequency (fC) – end of

passband and is normally specified at the point
1. Flexibility in Gain and Frequency where the response drops ‒3dB (half-power
Adjustment: The op-amp gain can be points or 0.707AVmid) from the passband
easily controlled using feedback, hence response.
active filter input signal is not
attenuated. Center frequency (fO) - the geometric mean of
the cutoff frequencies, found as
2. No loading effect: The op-amp has high
input impedance and low output fO = √ fC1 fC2
impedance. Hence, the op-amp circuit Roll-off Rate ‒ rate of change in gain when an
does not cause loading of the source and amplifier is operated outside its bandwidth.
load.
Decade is a tenfold increase (multiply by 10) or
3. Cost: Due to availability of modern ICs, a tenfold decrease (divide by 10).
variety of cheaper op-amps are available.

Passband – range of frequencies that are

allowed to pass.

Stopband – range of frequencies that are not

allowed to pass.

Types of Filters:
1. Low-pass
2. High-pass
3. Band-pass
4. Band-stop
Active Filters (M. Latina) p. 1
Octave is a doubling (multiply by 2) or halving
(divide by 2) of the frequency scale.

High Pass Filter:

- circuit that allows easy passage of high

frequencies and rejects all frequencies
below the cut-off frequency.
Roll-off:

Band Pass Filter:

- circuit that allows easy passage of signals

between the lower and upper cut-off
frequencies and rejects all other
Pole – number of RC circuit contained in the frequencies.
filter.

Order – number of reactive components (either

C or L).

Low Pass Filter:

- circuit that allows easy passage of low

frequencies and rejects all frequencies
above the cut-off frequency.

Active Filters (M. Latina) p. 2

Band Stop, Notch, Band Reject or Band Other characteristics:
Elimination Filter: ● Flattest possible amplitude response
● Excellent gain accuracy at low frequency end
of passband

Quality Factor Q:

- indication of the selectivity of the Band

Pass filter

Q = fO/BW
Chebyschev

Chebyschev filters have greater selectivity than

either Bessel or Butterworth at the expense of
ripple in the passband.

Other characteristics:
● Greater selectivity
● Very non-linear phase response
● High overshoot response to step inputs
Types of Bandpass:

(1) Narrow band

(2) Wide band

Filter Response Characteristic:

Butterworth

The Butterworth is a "maximally flat" amplitude

response filter. The attenuation rate beyond the
cut-off frequency is n6 dB per octave of
frequency, where n is the order (number of
poles) of the filter.
Active Filters (M. Latina) p. 3
Bessel

The Bessel is a type of “linear phase” filter.

Bessel filters pass transient waveforms with
minimum distortion. They are also used to
provide time delays for low pass filtering of
modulated waveforms and as a “running
average” type filter.

Other characteristics:
● Selectivity not as great as Chebyschev or
Butterworth
● Very little overshoot response to step inputs
● Fast rise time The Damping Factor:

The damping and quality factors have a very

important effect upon the filter response.

Elliptic

This filter has the sharpest roll-off of all filters in

the transition region but has ripples in both the
pass band and stop band regions. The elliptic
- The value of the damping factor required
filter can be designed to have very high
to produce desire response characteristic
attenuation for certain frequencies in the stop
depends on the order of the filter.
band, which reduces the attenuation for other
frequencies in the stop band. - The DF is determined by the negative
feedback network of the filter circuit.
Elliptic filters are also well known as Cauer filters
or Zolotarev filters. - Q can be expressed in terms of the
damping factor (DF):

Q = 1/DF

Active Filters (M. Latina) p. 4

Because of its maximally flat response, the  Ex. fC = 1/2RC for a low-pass single-pole
Butterworth characteristic is the most widely configuration.
used.
The number of poles determines the roll-off rate
of the filter. A Butterworth response produces -
20dB/dec/pole.
Single-pole
Low-pass circuit

The damping factor must have a definite value

to determine the type of filter characteristic
desired, such as a Butterworth or a Bessel.
DF = 2 – (R1/R2) Active Low Pass Filter:

where R1/R2 is the feedback resistor ratio in the Single Pole:

negative feedback loop.

Values for the Butterworth Response:

Critical Frequency and Roll-off Rate: Sallen-Key LPF:

The critical frequency is determined by the • one of the most common configuration
values of the resistors and capacitors in the for a second order filter
frequency selective RC circuit.

Active Filters (M. Latina) p. 5

 • also known as VCVS (voltage controlled For Butterworth response DF = 1.414:
voltage source) filter R1
1.414 = 2 ‒
R2
R1 = 586 

Cascaded LPF:

Example. To make a third-order LPF, a two-pole

Sallen-key LPF and a single LPF is cascaded. (roll-
off rate = -60dB/dec)

CA – provides feedback
for shaping the
response near
the edge of the
passband.

If RA = RB = R and CA=CB =C then

Example. To make a fourth-order LPF, cascade
two stages of the two-pole Sallen-key LPF. (roll-
off rate = -80dB/dec)

Example: Determine the fC of the Sallen-Key LPF

and set the value of R1 for an approximate
Butterworth response.

Example: For the fourth-pole filter given,

determine the capacitance values required to
produce a critical frequency of 2680Hz if all the
resistors in the RC low-pass circuits are 1.8k.
Also select values for the feedback resistors to
1 1 get a Butterworth response.
fC = = = 7.23kHz 1
2RC 2(1k)(0.022) 2680 = therefore C = 0.033F
2(1.8k) C
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CA1 = CA2 = CB1 = CB2 = 0.033F

Let R2 = R4 = 1.8k

For Butterworth response in the first stage DF =

1.848:
R1
1.848 = 2 ‒
R2
since R2 = 1.8k
R1 = 273.6
For Butterworth response in the 2nd stage DF = Sallen-Key HPF:
0.765:
R3
0.765= 2 ‒
R4
since R4 = 1.8k
R3 = 2.22k

Active High Pass Filter:

Single Pole:

If RA = RB = R and CA=CB =C then

Example: Implement an equal value second-

order Butterworth response HPF with a critical
frequency of approximately 10kHz.
assume R = RA = RB = R1 = 3.3k
then 1
C=
2(3.3k) 10k
C = 4.82nF

Active Filters (M. Latina) p. 7

CA = CB = 4.82nF

For Butterworth response DF = 1.414:

R1
1.414 = 2 ‒
R2
R2 = 5.63k

Cascading HPF:

Example: 6-pole HPF

Multiple Feedback BPF:

Active Band Pass Filter:

Cascaded BPF: cascade a HPF and a LPF R1 and C1  LP response

R2 and C2  HP response
AO  maximum gain occurs at the center
frequency

if C1 = C2 = C

Roll-off rate = ‒ 40dB/dec

Active Filters (M. Latina) p. 8

Since Q = fO/BW, the values of the resistors can
be computed:
(stated without derivation)

State Variable Filter (or Universal Active Filter):

To develop a gain expression, solve for Q in the

R1 and R2 formulas as follows:
Q = 2fOAOCR1
Q = fOCR2
Equate,
2fOAOCR1 = fOCR2
Cancelling yields,
2AOR1 = R2
R2
AO =
2R1
Example: Determine the center frequency,
maximum gain and BW for the given filter.

To optimize for LP or HP Butterworth,

DF = 1.414
since Q = 1/DF
then Q = 0.707
Such low Q provides a very wide band-pass
response.
To optimize for BP response, Q must be high.
The value of Q is set by the feedback resistors R5
and R6 given by the following equation:
1 R5
Q= +1
3 R6

Example: Determine the center frequency. Q

and BW for the Band Pass output of the state
variable filter.

Active Filters (M. Latina) p. 9

 State-Variable BSF:

Example: Verify that the BSF has a center-

1 1
fC = = = 7.23kHz frequency of 60Hz and optimize the filter for a Q
2R4C1 2R7C2 of 10.
The center frequency is approximately equal to
the critical frequencies of the integrators
fO = fC = 7.23kHz
1 R5
Q= +1 = 33.7
3 R6
BW = fO/Q = 215 Hz

The Biquad Filter:

- provides only BP and LP outputs
fO = fC of the integrator stages
1 1
fC = = = 60.3Hz
2R4C1 2R7C2

1 R5
Q= + 1 = 10
3 R6
therefore R5 = (3Q – 1) R6
if we use R6 = 3.3k
Active Band Stop Filter: then R5 = [3(10) – 1]3.3k = 95.7k
Multiple Feedback BSF:

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