Protection of power equipment

· overload protection
- over heating causes hazard of fire or explosion
- not used, if outage would be more dangerous; alarm needed anyway
- overload protection can be integrated with short circuit protection

· short circuit protection

- aim is to prevent excess heating of components
- other hazard: sag of conductors, broken conductor

· earth fault protection

- single phase to earth fault
- into earthed equipment
- into other system parts or objects
- generally should be noticed up to Rf = 500 W
- automatic tripping versus alarm only
· protection against hazard voltages
- public safety of people
- risks of fire
- risk of explosion
- importance depends on circumstances
- e.q. extremely hazardous or hazardous conditions
 Protective relays

· measure continuously power system state

- usually connected by measurement transformers
- CT & VT (current & voltage transformer)

· detect abnormal situations

- short circuit, earth fault, overload, over voltage, under voltage
- relay operates when set values are exceeded

· objective is to prevent or limit large disturbances

- alarm levels
- try to limit the affected area (selectivity)

· operate after the set time delay

- total fault time: relay delay + CB operation time (~ 100 ms)
 Principles of relay protection
· Selectivity: minimum outage coverage

· Speed and sensitivity

- in order to minimize the damages
- in order to maintain transmission stability
· Redundancy
- adjacent relays partly overlapping
- always some back-up protection
- no blind spots
· Reliable and simple Selectivity
· Testing must be possible
- on site · Relay detects the fault within protection zone
- during operation · Relay does not trip, if
· Reasonable investment costs - there is no fault
- fault is outside the protection zone
· Absolute selectivity
- relay trips only for faults within protection zone
· Time grading
· Current grading
 Protection zones
· formed by relays and circuit breakers
· lines, transformers, generators, motors

Back-up protection
· works in case of primary protection fails
· important especially in transmission systems
· large machines and transformers

Main tasks of relay protection

· indicate faults
· limit affected area
· limit consequences
 Types of relays
Over current relays :
t t t

I I I
instantaneous definite time inverse time

Differential relays :
transformer
Id
cable
I1 I2

Id
Id
I
I = (I1+I2)/2
Id = I2 - I1
 Relay types

Directional relays : Impedance relays :

Zj = line impedance
X

I
I R
Rf
U
U
I
j

I sin j
 MV-line short circuit protection
Re-closing (RC) :

fault RC RC

t1 0,5 s t2 ~ 1-2 min = Dt t3

Equivalent fault duration:

t ekv = (t1 + t 2 )e - Dt / t + t 3
t is the conductor cooling time constant

Maximum allowed fault duration is tmax

t max = I1s
2 2
Ik
Ik = actual fault current (max)
I1s = 1s thermal rated current

It must be tekv £ tmax

t1+t2 £ tmax
 Overcurrent protection of a MV line
The relay settings include :
I> delayed tripping current setting
t> delayed tripping time setting
I>> fast tripping current setting
t>> fast tripping time setting
tn re-closing time settings

Conditions for settings :

I> >> ILOAD
I> << Ik,min (2-phase short circuit)
t> : tekv < tmax (thermal limiting current)

The time setting t> must be clearly higher than the time delay
of the relay downstream, but clearly lower than the setting of the
back-up protection upstream.

Fast tripping takes care of strong faults close to the substation.

Often re-closings are blocked in this case.

Minimum time grading : mechanical relays 0.5 s ;

static relays 0.3 s´; numeric relays 0.15 s
 Earth fault protection of a MV-line

1) Zero sequence over current relay

- works in unearthed systems
- the fault current must be clearly higher than the
capacitive charge current in the sound line case.

I0>
C0j åC
i
0i >> C 0j
i¹ j
If = 3wC0e·E

2) Zero sequence directional relay in reactive current connection

- works in unearthed systems

U0
condition :
I0
j I0 sin j > Ias
I0
I0
j0 = 90°
U0
Earth fault protection in compensated neutral systems

3) Zero sequence directional relay in active current connection

- works properly in coil earthed systems

U0
j I0 condition:
I0 I0 cos j > Ias
I0
U0
Relay protection in transmission systems

400 kV line protection

Distance relay
· both short circuit and earth fault protection
· back-up protection for other network parts
· pilot wire systems

Differential relay
· only short lines (cables)
 Distance relays

· Not-switching
- very fast
- 6 measurement units
- phase-phase
- phase-earth
- works in 20 ms

· Switching
- pick-up unit
- measurement unit
- short circuit / earth fault connection
- works in 30…70 ms
 Protection zones of a distance relay

D A B C

1
2
3
4

Example:
Zone 1: reach 85 % of line A-B, operation time < 100 ms
Zone 2: reach 120 % of line A-B, time delay 400 ms
Zone 3: reach120 % of line A-C, time delay 1 s
Zone 4: reach forward A-C, time delay 4 s

X Line impedance

Load current

R
Rf
 Zones of protection

A B C

A B C

The effect of side-feeds:

z=0,85(a+kb)
z=0,85a

a b
IA+IB
A B C
IA + IB
k = IA IB
IA ~ ~
The power swing must not trip the relay

Example: switching state change

Power Impedance
 Power swing blocking relay

X Impedance during
a power swing

Blocking relay operation area

R
Impedance relay operation area

- If power swing relay picks-up, it will block the distance relay after time delay Dt

- Dt is taken big enough that blocking has not time to operate during
faults, but short enough that it works during power swings before the
relay trips.
 Transformer protection

· protection for short circuits inside and downstream

· primary partly protected by the feeding line relay

· short circuit protection by over current relay

- small primary transformers
- fast tripping for primary faults
- delayed tripping for downstream faults

· the use of differential relays

- compensation of the transforming ratio
- blocking for inrush currents
- 100 Hz component
- the effect of on-load tap-changer must be considered

· Buchholz-relay or gas relay

- between tank and expansion chamber

- overload and arc produces gas
- first alarm, then trip
- strong faults: fast trip
Transformer protection

Buchholz-relay
- detection of insulation faults
- operation time 100…300 ms
- steps for alarm and trip
- gas analysis Þ fault type !

Parts of a gas relay

1 body
2 cover
3 window for inspection
4 alarm float
5 trip float
6 tube for alarm contact
7 tube for trip contact
8 connection wires
9 connection screws
10 valve for gas sample
Transformer overload protection :
· temperature measurement of top-oil
· modeling circuit for winding

Earth fault protection :

· zero sequence over current relay

In the case of large transformers :

· earth fault protection
· oil level indication
· flow relay for on-load tap-changer

Factors affecting the protection solutions:

· importance of the transformer
· type of neutral earthing
· type of network
- radial, or looped
 Differential relay in transformer protection
Iv = (I1 +I2) / 2 & Id = I1 - I2

p = basic setting = Id1/In

s = pick-up ratio = Id2/Iv

Id/In

Iv
1
Id2
Id1

0 1 2 3
Iv/In

Id

I1 I2
Factors affecting the setting of a differential relay

· saturation of current transformers

· transformer magnetizing inrush current
· errors of current transformers (< 13%)
· steps of on-load tap-changer (< 15%)

L1

L2

L3

An example of the inrush current

 123kV CB

Example of the
Art fault
24kV CB
Alarm

transformer Short circuit &

protection Earth fault Back-up

Short circuit

Earth fault
(110 / 20 kV primary
transformer) Tap changer
Flow relay
Gas relay

Oil level
Oil temperature

Winding temp model

Short circuit
Back-up

Short circuit

Busbar protection

Earth fault

Earth fault

Busbar voltage
monitoring
 Generator protection

· investment costs
· operation costs
- faults
- maintenance
- preventive maintenance
- outage costs
- these all depend on the protection

Faults of generators in Finland in the years 1970-1983

year -70 -71 -72 -73 -74 -75 -76 -77 -78 -79 -80 -81 -82 -83
generators pcs 89 95 102 104 106 109 111 118 118 118 118 119 120 120
faults pcs 1 6 4 2 0 5 3 5 6 4 4 9 9 5
fault costs 3,8 0,9 0,6 7,9 0 1,7 8,0 3,5 4,8 5,2 7,5 2,5 3,4 2,1
Mmk / case
average outage 60 57 65 225 0 77 140 43 60 52 25 110 70 60
time (days)
 Generator protection

· Basic protection relays

- over current
- stator earth fault protection
- disconnection and synchronizing relays
· protection of the turbine
· magnetizing control and stopping logic
· winding cooling system
· fire protection (CO2)
· bearing lubrication and cooling
 An example
voltage rise

inter-turn faults

rotor earth fault

1 = alarm
2 = generator CB
3 = magnetizing CB
4 = turbine trip

reverse power

over load

load unsymmetry

over current

stator earth fault