GEMS & GEMOLOGY

VOLUME XXXVIII SUMMER 2002

SUMMER 2002
PAGES 123–204
Featuring:
Characteristics and
Grading of Pink Diamonds
VOLUME 38 NO. 2

THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE GEMOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF A MERICA

 Summer 2002 VOLUME 38, NO. 2

EDITORIAL
123 Remembering Gemology’s Renaissance Man
John Sinkankas (1915–2002)
Alice S. Keller

124 LETTERS
FEATURE ARTICLES
128 Characterization and Grading of Natural-Color Pink Diamonds
Carat Points John M. King, James E. Shigley, Scott S. Guhin, Thomas H. Gelb, and Matthew Hall
Based on the largest sample of pink diamonds published to date, this report
looks at differences between type I and type II pink diamonds and examines
the color description terminology used for pink diamonds on GIA Gem Trade
pg. 129
Laboratory grading reports.

NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES

148 New Chromium- and Vanadium-Bearing Garnets
from Tranoroa, Madagascar
Karl Schmetzer, Thomas Hainschwang, Heinz-Jürgen Bernhardt, and Lore Kiefert
A study of pyrope-spessartine garnets with unusual color behavior from
Tranoroa, southern Madagascar.

156 Update on the Identification of Treated “Golden”

South Sea Cultured Pearls
Shane Elen
pg. 157
On the basis of their fluorescence and atypical absorption features, 33 of 35
“golden” South Sea cultured pearls in a strand were identified as color treated.

REGULAR FEATURES
161 Gem Trade Lab Notes
• Aurichalcite cabochon • Another commercial U.S. facility offers HPHT annealing • Recognizing a color attribute’s effect
on color grading fancy-color diamonds • Diamond “pearl” necklace • Internal laser drilling update • Unusual “pink”
diamond • High-quality synthetic jadeite from General Electric • Cobalt-”diffused” sapphire • Schlossmacherite beads

170 Gem News International

• Conference reports • New round cuts from Antwerp • Benitoite update
• Cassiterite from Bolivia • Brazilian emerald with feldspar matrix • Sunstone
feldspar from Tanzania • Update on Namibian demantoid garnet • Kyanite from
Brazil • South Sea cultured pearls with broken beads • Developments in fresh-
water cultured and “keshi” pearls • New sapphire locality in Afghanistan
• Elbaite-liddicoatite tourmaline from Vietnam • Green zoisite reappears
• Fuchsite imitations of emerald • Unusual synthetic rubies • Identification
method for imitation asterism • Irradiated color-change fluorite
187 Thank You, Donors
188 Book Reviews
192 Gemological Abstracts pg. 165

203 Guidelines for Authors

 Remembering Gemology’s
Renaissance Man
John Sinkankas (1915–2002)

ems & Gemology mourns the passing of associate editor 14,000-item library in 1988, it was the world’s finest private
G John Sinkankas, who died in San Diego, California, on collection of gem and mineral literature. Now housed in the
May 17 after a brief illness. John had celebrated his 87th Institute’s Richard T. Liddicoat Library and Information
birthday just two days before. Center in Carlsbad, California, the Sinkankas collection
John Sinkankas was the quintessential “Renaissance Man” includes thousands of rare and important books (see D.
of gemology. He was a prolific author, a renowned lapidary, Dirlam et al., “The Sinkankas Library,” Spring 1989 G&G,
the undisputed bibliophile in his field, a gem and mineral pp. 2–15).
connoisseur, and a successful miner. He was also an accom- In 1982, John was awarded an honorary doctorate from
plished artist in watercolor, and several of his paintings of William Paterson University. Two years later, a new peg-
gems and minerals appeared in his books. Add to that his matitic phosphate mineral was named sinkankasite in recogni-
more than two decades of contributions to G&G, and it is safe tion of his extraordinary contributions to the field. John
to say that there will never be another John Sinkankas in received the Carnegie Mineralogical Award in 1988, and was
gemology. named an Honorary Lifetime Member of the American Gem
A native of Paterson, New Jersey, John began collecting Trade Association (AGTA) in 1992.
minerals from the local quarries by the age of seven. After John’s contributions to Gems & Gemology were immeasur-
graduating in 1936 from the New Jersey State Teachers able. A member of the editorial review board from 1981 to
College (later William Paterson University), John started his 1983, and associate editor since 1984, he not only contributed
25-year career as a Navy pilot. He married his college sweet- numerous articles and book reviews, but he also diligently
heart Marjorie Jane McMichael in 1940. John rose to the rank reviewed (and sometimes even rewrote) dozens of
of captain before retiring in 1961, whereupon he and Marge manuscripts.
settled in San Diego’s Pacific Beach community. This posi- As a friend of John’s for more than 25 years, I treasured his
tioned him well for his many forays into the local gem peg- dry wit and unassuming personality. He was generous with
matites. his encyclopedic knowledge and had a unique ability to take
John’s childhood interest in gems and minerals continued complex concepts, such as crystallography, and put them in
throughout his naval career. After World War II, he enrolled terms that a layperson could understand. His influence was
in correspondence courses from GIA and the American Gem global, especially in the lapidary arts, where many who never
Society (AGS). A self-taught lapidary, John began cutting even met John spoke of him as their mentor.
gems in 1947. Today two of his most important gem carv- John Sinkankas is survived by his wife, Marjorie; daugh-
ings, a 7,478 ct quartz egg and the world’s largest faceted ters, Sharon J. Tooley of San Diego and Marjorie E. Coates of
golden beryl (2,054 ct), are on permanent display at the Virginia; sons, John W. Sinkankas of Los Angeles and
Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. George M. Sinkankas of Tennessee; nine grandchildren; and
Inspired to light the way for others, he began writing an six great-grandchildren.
amateur lapidary column for Rocks & Minerals magazine in At the request of the Sinkankas family, GIA has estab-
1951. His first book, Gem Cutting—A Lapidary’s Manual, was lished the John Sinkankas Library Fund. If you would like to
published in 1955. More than a dozen books followed, contribute to the fund, please send your donation to: Dona
including Emerald and Other Beryls (1981), Gemology: An Dirlam, Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information
Annotated Bibliography (1993), and the three-volume series Center, 5345 Armada Drive, Carlsbad, California 92008
Gemstones of North America (1959, 1976, and 1997). (ddirlam@gia.edu).
John once described his approach to writing: “It’s really
quite a thrill when you find little bits of information that you
didn’t know, that you’ve never seen before. And you have a
great deal of satisfaction in putting it down in black and
white so everybody else can share that information.”
As John’s writing projects expanded, so did his and Alice S. Keller, Editor
Marge’s private library. At the time GIA purchased their akeller@gia.edu

EDITORIAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 123

LETTERS
COMMENTS ON THE GIA
ANALYSIS OF DIAMOND “FIRE”
LETTERS
This article from GIA’s study of the impact of proportions
on the appearance of a round brilliant cut diamond
color emissions (fire) for each of these 16 viewing posi-
tions for a variety of diamond proportions would more
closely represent the real-world observation of diamonds.

The GIA Study Is a Huge First Step. This first step

(Reinitz et al., Fall 2001, pp. 174–197) is a work of includes the ability to measure and compare the number,
admirable dedication, intelligence, and technology and color distributions, and intensity of rays entering and
represents a huge commitment of resources. emerging from diamonds of differing proportions.
It is unfortunate that this huge effort has two major Although not included in the GIA articles (see also T. S.
gaps. First, it confines the study of entering rays to the ver- Hemphill et al., “Modeling the appearance of the round
tical, ignoring the vast majority of rays that enter the dia- brilliant cut diamond: An analysis of brilliance,” Fall
mond from directions other than the perpendicular, and 1998 Gems & Gemology, pp. 158–183), it seems reason-
therefore result in very different emerging light patterns. able and important to combine the diverse brilliance and
Second, the “fire” (dispersion) calculations are taken fire measurements into a single “metric.”
from the total of emitted rays impacting on a virtual Table 2 of the Fall 2001 article (p. 179), which compares
hemisphere that encloses all of the diamond above the “Proportions and Calculated Metric Values for 28
girdle. In the real world, diamonds are viewed from indi- Diamonds” from the study, is the only place where the fire
vidual points of view, so that the “fire” of the diamond metric is examined in actual (as opposed to virtual) dia-
can be judged only from those points. Thus, the study monds. Note that within this group of 28 diamonds, five of
uses only one illumination direction, where in actuality the eight that most closely adhere to both the American
diamonds are illuminated from an infinity of positions. Ideal Cut (AGS “0”) and the Tolkowsky cut* show DCLR
Conversely, simultaneous viewing from an infinity of (dispersed colored light return, the metric for fire) of over
positions over an entire hemisphere could never occur, as 3.75 and a combined WLR (weighted light return, the met-
diamonds can be seen from only one location at a time. ric for brilliance) and DCLR of over 4.03.
Thus, the two fundamental bases for this study do not Those stones are:
reflect what actually happens when diamonds are illumi-
nated or viewed.
If we were to add three other entering beams of light— No. Crown Pavilion Table WLR DCLR Combined
angle angle WLR and DCLR
say, at 20°, 40°, and 60° from the vertical—the light emis-
sions resulting from these new sources would likely be
very different from the purely vertical rays used in the 1 34.3° 40.6° 54% 0.283 3.97 4.25
study. They would also more closely approach realistic 8 33.4° 41.2° 58% 0.279 3.79 4.07
10 34.9° 40.9° 54% 0.281 3.89 4.17
illuminating positions.
13 33.7° 41.1° 52% 0.281 4.01 4.29
Again, diamonds are never actually viewed from a 16 33.8° 40.4° 54% 0.281 3.77 4.05
complete hemisphere, but from single points of view
within that hemisphere. The two systems of viewing are
not identical, or even similar. So, of the 28 actual (not virtual) stones examined by
To get representative views of rays emerging from the GIA for this study, five that had the highest DCLR and a
diamond, at least four viewing positions—say at 0°, 20°, high combined WLR and DCLR—that is, five that exhib-
40°, and 60° from the vertical—would seem the mini- ited the most fire, and high combined brilliance and fire—
mum necessary to sample “fire” for each of the above were the five that most closely resembled both the AGS
illumination sources by an actual observer. Thus, we “0” and Tolkowsky proportions.
would have four illuminating positions, with four view- This fits the claims of the “Ideal” adherents that this
ing positions for each. cut is high in dispersion, and represents the best combina-
A comparison of the intensity of light (brightness) and tion of brilliance and fire.

124 LETTERS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

 Tilt of 10Þ Tilt of 18Þ

65% Table 55% Table 65% Table 55% Table

Figure 1. In these photos of two 3¼ 8 ct round brilliants, which were identical except for the size of
their tables, the diamond with the 65% table begins to show dull girdle reflections at a 10° tip, where-
as the one with the 55% table does not show any girdle reflections until it has been tipped to 18°.

A New Concept: Examination of the Quality of Emitted To illustrate this concept, we prepared two 3¼ 8 ct
Light—The “Cone of Beauty.” GIA equates excellence of round-brilliant-cut diamonds—each with 41° pavilions
cut with the amount of light emissions, but one must and 34° crown angles—which were identical except for
also consider the quality of light emissions being viewed. the size of the table: 55% in one, 65% in the other. As fig-
Some light emissions actually detract from the diamond’s ure 1 illustrates, at a 10° tip, the 65% table began to show
appearance, or “beauty.” For example, dull (fish-eye) dull girdle reflections; the 55% table showed none at all.
reflections of the girdle seen at the edge of a tipped table It was necessary to tip to 18° before the 55% table showed
contribute to the total of light emissions, but they cer- any girdle reflections at all; at 18°, the diamond with the
tainly detract from the diamond’s beauty. Likewise, pavil- 65% table showed a large dull area of girdle reflections.
ion height, crown height, and table size all affect the I refer to the angle over which a stone can be tipped
amount a diamond can be tipped before ugly, dull girdle before the girdle reflections significantly impact the
reflections become visible. appearance of the diamond as the “cone of uniform beau-
Therefore, not only is this study of fire relevant to ty.” For the diamond with the 55% table, the “cone of
only a tiny minority of the possible illumination sources uniform beauty” is 36°; for the diamond with the 65%
(and not to real-life viewing positions), but it also mea- table, it is only 20° (figure 2).
sures only the quantity, not the quality (the uniform As one tips the stone further, the dull area in the 65%
beauty), of the emitted rays of light. This uniformity of table continues to be much larger than in the 55% table.
high brilliance and fire, that is, the absence of dull areas, This is a significant difference in beauty and brilliance.
is an essential factor in the diamond’s beauty. So we see that measuring the total quantity of bril-
“Fish-eye” diamonds are the dullest, the least desir- liance and dispersion of emitted light is only part of the
able of all. Yet it is possible, by sufficiently tipping any picture. One must also consider the quality, the uniform
conventionally cut brilliant, to view these dull girdle beauty, of the perceived rays.
reflections at the table edges. Similar cause-and-effect relationships should become
What causes increased visibility of these ugly girdle apparent when other individual entry and emerging rays
reflections? First, the larger the table, the easier it is to see are analyzed, as suggested above. It is this diamantaire’s
girdle reflections. Second, visibility of the girdle reflec- opinion, that at the end of such a research study the
tions varies directly with insufficient pavilion angles. “Ideal cut” diamond will emerge as the most beautiful, in
keeping with its rapidly growing popularity in recent
years.
*
In conclusion, I hope that GIA will add a cut “grade”
Following are the proportions specified for the AGS “0” and
to their well-respected diamond grading reports. And I
Tolkowsky cuts.
recommend that any such information take into consider-
AGS “0” Tolkowsky ation additional illumination and viewing angles, as well
as the “cone of uniform beauty” concept introduced
Table 52.4%–57.5% 53%
above. An objective evaluation would allow the cutter or
Pavilion angle 40.16°–41.22° 40.75°
buyer to make an informed decision about the desired
Crown 33.7° – 35.8° 34.5°
style of cutting. Those who want maximum “spread” and
Girdle 0.51% – 2.95% Omitted
weight will be able to gauge the consequent loss of “fire”
Culet Very small Omitted
and decreased “cone of brilliance.” However, table 2 of

LETTERS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 125

 extreme lighting and/or observing conditions, rather than
typical ones, so that only one appearance aspect is dis-
played, while the others are minimized. With regard to
fire, we stated (on p. 181 of the Fall 2001 article): “This
combination of lighting and observing conditions tests
the maximum extent to which a round brilliant with a
particular choice of proportions can disperse light into its
component colors.” Thus, this set of conditions offered us
a means to effectively differentiate sets of proportions
from one another.
Despite his reservations about the conditions for
DCLR, Mr. Kaplan suggests that this metric, added to
WLR, is useful for assessing diamonds. As these metrics
are defined, however, the scale of DCLR is about 10
times larger than the scale of WLR. Thus, in the sums
provided by Mr. Kaplan, DCLR counts for about 10
Figure 2. The “cone of uniform beauty”—that is, times as much as the WLR contribution. So the dia-
the angle to which a diamond can be tipped before monds that have a high sum really have higher DCLR
the girdle reflections negatively impact the appear- than the other stones, rather than “the highest com-
ance—is 36° for the diamond with the 55% table, bined brilliance and fire.” We do not consider the
but only 20° for the one with the 65% table. research published so far to be directly usable as a grad-
ing system; as we stated on page 175 (of the article on
fire), “We plan to address practical applications of our
research to date in our next article.”
the “fire” article indicates that those who prefer maxi- Mr. Kaplan also suggests that the results of the DCLR
mum beauty will choose the “American Ideal” make. and WLR metrics, however flawed, nevertheless demon-
George Kaplan strate the superiority of the “American Ideal Cut” (i.e.,
Lazare Kaplan International the AGS “0”) and the Tolkowsky Cut. When we look at
New York City the same data, however, we see support for our con-
tention that the combination of proportions is more
important than the particular value of any one of them.
Reply:
Based on the proportions shown in our table 2, of the five
Mr. Kaplan makes some excellent points about the light- diamonds Mr. Kaplan chose as examples, only two would
ing and observation conditions we chose for DCLR. get a grade equivalent to AGS “0”; three would get a
(Others have made similar comments about WLR.) Both grade of “1”. Another diamond, no. 23, has high DCLR
of these metrics were preliminary explorations into the and a high sum, but it would get a grade equivalent to an
appearance aspects of a round brilliant cut diamond, and AGS “3”. We would also like to note that one diamond
we have since experimented with other combinations of that would get a grade equivalent to AGS “7” shows both
illumination and viewing conditions. Mr. Kaplan suggests
examining 16 conditions altogether, and we will keep
these suggestions in mind as we continue our research. Stone no.a Equivalent WLR DCLR Sum
We must, however, point out something about “actu- AGS grade
al,” or typical, lighting and observing conditions. In typi- 13 1 0.281 4.01 4.291
cal mixed lighting, each polished round brilliant displays 1 0 0.283 3.97 4.253
a complex visual array that combines brilliance, fire, scin- 23 3 0.269 3.92 4.189
tillation, and aspects pertaining to the pattern, such as 10 0 0.281 3.89 4.171
contrast and symmetry. All these appearance aspects are 8 1 0.279 3.79 4.069
displayed simultaneously in most common lighting. We 16 1 0.281 3.77 4.051
think that this complexity underlies the continuing dis- 22 7 0.274 3.75 4.024
agreement in the trade about cut issues. More than 80 20 2 0.279 3.63 3.909
years of debate has not resulted in worldwide agreement 12 0 0.274 3.52 3.794
of what constitutes the best proportions, although it has 7 2 0.271 3.46 3.731
produced several successful marketing niches.
aSamples are listed in order (highest to lowest) of the sum of WLR
Thus, our first step was to look at these appearance
and DCLR. The numbers boldfaced are the ones in Mr. Kaplan’s
aspects individually. When separating these optical effects table.
from one another, it can be advantageous to choose

126 LETTERS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

a DCLR value and a sum greater than another diamond
that would be graded as a “0”.
We agree completely with Mr. Kaplan’s excellent
point that the “quality” of light emerging from a round
brilliant is important as well as the quantity of it. After
exploring fire, a significant portion of our research effort
turned in this direction, toward examining the face-up
pattern displayed by a diamond. Some aspects of this pat-
tern are important for scintillation, and some aspects (not
necessarily the same ones) can affect human perception of
brilliance. Since hearing Mr. Kaplan’s presentation at the
1999 AGS Conclave, we have thought much about how
tilting of the diamond (motion with respect to the light
source and observer) reveals more about the cut than can
be seen in only one viewing position. Viewing distance is
also an important variable. However, we think his phrase
“uniform beauty” may be even more appropriate to
describe aspects of this pattern beyond the lack of girdle
reflections. Two appearance problems that readily come
to mind are a dark-appearing table and the visibility of the
culet through the bezel facets.
Mr. Kaplan’s comments are very welcome as we con-
tinue with this complicated research, even if we think his
conclusions are premature. Now that we have embarked
Figure 1. This jeremejevite crystal specimen (25 ´
on the next phases of our research, which include real-
20 mm) was recently recovered from the Erongo
world verification and research into scintillation (which
Mountains in Namibia. Courtesy of C. Johnston.
requires movement and tilt), his comments are timely
and appreciated.
Ilene Reinitz, Mary Johnson,
the first two weeks of mining by the Khan River joint
and Al M. Gilbertson venture. The pocket contained some 300 crystals, mostly
GIA Research terminated, that were transparent and “straw” yellow; it
New York and Carlsbad also yielded the rough from which the 4.54 ct yellow
stone pictured in the Scarratt et al. article was undoubt-
edly cut. The largest crystal we found measured 51 ´ 6
mm. The contents of the pocket were delivered to joint-
More on jeremejevite from Namibia venture partner Bryan Lees of The Collector’s Edge in
In response to “Jeremejevite: A gemological update” (K. Golden, Colorado. Subsequently, Mr. Lees sold the bulk
Scarratt et al., Fall 2001, pp. 206–211), I am writing to of the crystals to rare-stone dealer Mark Kaufman of San
clarify a few points about the recent production of jere- Diego, California, from whom they presumably have
mejevite from Namibia. From December 1998 to migrated into circulation.
February 2001, I was the mine manager of Khan River After mining some 4,000 tonnes of rock without fur-
Mining & Exploration (Pty.) Ltd.’s jeremejevite project at ther production, we terminated our mining activities and
Mile 72 on the Namibian coast (72 miles north of the reclaimed the area. It is extremely doubtful that there will
coastal city of Swakopmund). Mile 72 often has been be future production of jeremejevite from Mile 72.
reported in the literature as “Cape Cross,” although it is Most recently, in March 2001, there was a substantial
some 16 km south of Cape Cross. The coordinates of the discovery of blue, gem-quality jeremejevite in the Erongo
discovery outcrop are 21° 52’ 76”S, 14° 04’ 51”E. This Mountains (see, e.g. figure 1). Given the extent of the
location lies within 700 m of the state-run recreational Erongo production, gemologists would be well advised to
fishing campground at Mile 72. revisit the gemological data for this fascinating mineral,
The production of jeremejevite from Mile 72 dates as the probability of their encountering one has increased
back to the 1974 –1976 mining efforts of Sid Pieters, a significantly.
Windhoek gem and mineral dealer. Facetable blue jere- Christopher L. Johnston
mejevite, like the stones pictured in figure 2 of the Johnston-Namibia C.C.
Scarratt et al. article, was obtained during this time. The Omaruru, Namibia
most recent production occurred in March 1999, within chris@johnston.com.na

LETTERS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 127

 CHARACTERIZATION AND GRADING OF
NATURAL-COLOR PINK DIAMONDS
By John M. King, James E. Shigley, Scott S. Guhin, Thomas H. Gelb, and Matthew Hall

The GIA Gem Trade Laboratory (GTL) collected gemological data on 1,490 natural-color pink
gem diamonds—both types I and II. While there was some overlap in gemological properties
between the two diamond types, they did show differences in their color ranges, ultraviolet fluo-
rescence, absorption spectra, and microscopic features. The color description terminology used
for pink diamonds on GIA GTL grading reports is discussed and illustrated, with a separate com-
mentary on red diamonds.

K nown for their great beauty and rarity, pink

diamonds have long been sought after by jew-
elers, collectors, and consumers (figure 1).
Notable pink diamonds such as the Darya-i-Nur
other gemological properties. In particular, we looked
for correlations of characteristics or properties with
the two type classifications in which pink diamonds
occur: those with a relatively high nitrogen content
(reported to weigh more than 175 ct), the Agra (type I), and those with virtually no nitrogen (type II).
(known historically to weigh 32.24 ct and recently Note that, throughout this article, the term pink is
recut to 28.15 ct), and the 20.53 ct Hortensia (figure used generically, when appropriate, to refer to the
2) add to and sustain interest in these gems (Balfour, entire color range of pink diamonds. This includes
2000). Table 1 lists a number of larger “named” those having brown, purple, or orange modifying
faceted pink diamonds that have contributed to our components. In all these instances, however, the pre-
fascination with them over the years. As with blue dominant color appearance is pink; thus, pink is the
diamonds, however, the infrequency with which last term in the diamond’s color description. For a
pink diamonds were encountered in the trade (prior discussion of “red” diamonds, see box A.
to the discovery of the Argyle mine in Australia) or
were documented by gemological laboratories result-
ed in a scarcity of published information on them. BACKGROUND
This article presents data for an extensive popula- Historical and Geographic Origin. Over the cen-
tion of nearly 1,500 pink diamonds examined in the turies, pink gem diamonds have been recovered
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory (GTL) over a specific from several localities. Some historic diamonds,
period during the last few years. To the best of our such as the Agra, originated in India (Balfour, 2000);
knowledge, this report is the first gemological study
of a large sample of pink diamonds that are represen-
tative of what currently exists in the marketplace. See end of article for About the Authors and Acknowledgments.
Following some comments on the history of pink *Note that this article contains a number of photos illustrating subtle distinc-
diamonds and their geographic sources, this article tions in color. Because of the inherent difficulties of controlling color in print-
ing (as well as the instability of inks over time), the color in an illustration may
will focus on expanding the database of information differ from the actual color of the diamond.
on this important group of colored diamonds by doc- GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 128–147.
umenting and reporting on their range of color and © 2002 Gemological Institute of America

128 PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

 Figure 1. The fascination with
pink diamonds dates back
centuries. For the contempo-
rary diamantaire, the range of
colors—such as those shown
here—offers many possibilities
for different tastes. The dia-
monds in the two rings are a
Fancy Intense purplish pink
(left, 5.04 ct) and Fancy
Intense pink (right, 3.75 ct);
the round and triangular loose
diamonds (0.38 and 0.54 ct)
are Fancy Intense purplish
pink, and the 1.12 ct oval is
Fancy Deep orangy pink. The
rings are courtesy of Rima
Investors Corp. (left) and
Mona Nesseth, Custom &
Estate Jewels (property of a pri-
vate collector). Photo © GIA
and Harold & Erica Van Pelt.

their exact geographic sources in that country 10,000 carats of the 25 to 30 million carats of rough
remain uncertain, although the Golconda region is production from this one mine. Of these, fewer than
one likely area. A number of pink diamonds—some 10% weighed more than 0.20 ct (Michelle, 2001).
quite large—have been found sporadically in allu- The most important of the pink Argyle diamonds
vial workings along the interior rivers of Brazil, par- are offered at special auctions (“Argyle Diamond’s
ticularly in the region called Triangulo Mineiro Pink Diamond Tender, 1985–1996,” 1997; Roskin,
(“Mining Triangle”; also known as Alto Paranaiba, 2001a).
near the city of Uberlandia; see Svisero et al., 1984;
Cassedanne, 1989) in the state of Minas Gerais. A
78 ct pink diamond crystal was found at an undis-
Figure 2. The 20.53 ct Hortensia was included in the
closed location in Minas Gerais in 1999 (Hart,
1791 inventory of the crown jewels of France, but
2000). Beginning in the 1940s, the Williamson was one of several pieces stolen from the Grande
mine in Tanzania produced a small number of pink Meuble palace in 1792. It was recovered shortly
diamonds, the most famous of which was a 54.5 ct thereafter, and later became associated with the
crystal section that was fashioned into a 23.6 ct family of Napoleon. It is currently displayed in the
round brilliant (the “Williamson Pink”) and pre- Galerie d’Apollon at the Louvre Museum in Paris.
sented to then-Princess Elizabeth on the occasion Photo courtesy of Art Resource.
of her wedding (“Pink diamond gift …,” 1948;
Balfour, 1982). Another occasional source is
Kalimantan, Indonesia, on the island of Borneo
(Ball, 1934; reported to be along the Kapuas River—
see Fritsch, 1998), although no large or deeply col-
ored pink diamonds are known from there. On
occasion, the Premier mine near Johannesburg in
South Africa has produced pink diamonds (L. Wolf,
pers. comm., 2002).
From the late 1980s on, however, the supply
coming from the Argyle mine in Australia greatly
increased the availability of pink and, on rare occa-
sions, red diamonds (Hofer, 1985; Shigley et al.,
2001). Even with this production, from April 2000
to April 2001 pink diamonds represented fewer than

PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 129

Noted Auction Sales. In recent history, pink dia- tioned a 20.83 ct Faint pink for $474,000 per carat,
monds have been important components of high-pro- and a 5.74 ct Fancy pink for $665,000 per carat
file sales by auction houses. In November 1994, (Blauer, 2000).
Christie’s (Geneva) sold a 19.66 ct Fancy pink dia-
mond for $377,483 per carat; a year later, in Novem- Past Studies. Except for occasional discussions of
ber 1995, Sotheby’s (Geneva) sold a 7.37 ct Fancy famous examples and/or historical geographic
Intense purplish pink diamond for $818,863 per carat. sources, there have been few published studies of the
More recently, in May 1999, Christie’s (Geneva) auc- gemological properties of pink diamonds as a group.
Some information on them can be found in Orlov
(1977), Liddicoat (1987), Harris (1994), Webster
(1994), and Hofer (1998). Most recent discussions
TABLE 1. Notable named faceted pink diamonds, have been on the type I pink diamonds found at the
weighing more than 9 ct.a
Argyle mine (see, e.g., Chapman et al., 1996; Shigley
Weight (ct) Shape Colorb Name et al., 2001). Less information has been documented
on type II pink diamonds, although two exceptions
242.31 c Flat oblong "Light pink" Great Table
are Anderson (1960) and Scarratt (1987).
175 to 195 d Rectangular step "Light pink" Darya-i-Nur
140.50 Cushion brilliant "Pink" Regent
There have also been some shorter reports on
72 Cushion brilliant "Rose pink" Nepal Pink “pink” diamonds:
70.39 e Pear brilliant Fancy Light pink Empress Rose
60.75 (Not stated) "Light rose" Cuiaba • General information (Henry, 1979; Kane, 1987;
60 f Oval brilliant "Rose pink" Nur-ul-Ain Shigley and Fritsch, 1993; Fritsch, 1998;
56.71 Table "Light pink" Shah Jahan Balfour, 2000; Roskin, 2001b), and absorption
40.30 g Pear brilliant Fancy Light pink Carlotta spectra and fluorescence reactions (Scarratt,
34.64 Cushion brilliant Fancy pink Princie 1987; Fritsch, 1998)
29.78 Pear brilliant "Pink" Pink Sun Rise • Descriptions of particular diamonds in the GIA
28.15 h Rectangular Fancy Intense pink Agra
modified brilliant
Gem Trade Lab Notes section of Gems &
24.78 Pear brilliant "Light pink" Peach Blossom Gemology (e.g., Crowningshield, 1959, 1960)
24.44 Emerald-cut “Pink” Mouawad Lilac • Reports on the photochromic behavior of some
Pink pink diamonds, in which they change color
23.60 Round brilliant "Light pink" Williamson Pink under different conditions (Van Royen, 1995;
22.84 i Marquise brilliant Fancy pink Winston Pink
Liu et al., 1998; Van Bockstael, 1998; Koivula
21.06 j Rectangular Fancy pink Mouawad Pink
modified brilliant and Tannous, 2001)
21.00 Square "Rose" Mazarin no. 7 • Treated “pink” diamonds and their identifica-
20.53 Shield "Pink" Hortensia tion (Crowningshield and Reinitz, 1995; Kam-
17.00 Square "Reddish pink" Mazarin no. 12 merling et al., 1995; King et al., 1996; Reinitz
15 Pear brilliant "Pink" Kirti-Nur and Moses, 1998)
13.35 Cushion brilliant "Pink" Paul I
• Treated synthetic red diamonds and their iden-
9.93 Rectangular step "Pink" Orchid
9.01 Pear brilliant "Light pink" Grande Conde
tification (Moses et al., 1993)
• Information on auction sales (Blauer, 2000)
a Sources of information: GIA Gem Trade Laboratory grading
reports, as well as Henry (1979), GIA Diamond Dictionary (1993),
Hofer (1998), and Balfour (2000). Color and Color Origin. The cause of color in type I
b
Color descriptions in quotation marks are taken from the literature.
GIA GTL fancy grade descriptions represent the terminology in use and type II pink diamonds (figure 3) is still the sub-
at the time of the report (modifications to this terminology were ject of scientific investigations (see Collins, 1982;
introduced in 1995; see King et al., 1994).
c Weight in old carats.
Chapman and Humble, 1991; Fritsch, 1998;
d
Estimated weight range. Chapman and Noble, 1999). There is no evidence
e
Examined by GIA in 2001. that this coloration is due to any trace element (such
f Estimated weight.
as nitrogen or boron) in the crystal structure of the
g
Examined by GIA in 1978.
h
diamond (although early work erroneously suggested
Examined by GIA in 1998. The Agra was known historically to
weigh 32.24 ct but was subsequently recut. that manganese was responsible for the pink color;
i
Examined by GIA in 1974. see Raal, 1958). The cause appears to be similar to
j Examined by GIA in 1989.
that which produces brown coloration in diamond,

130 PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

that is, a color center (or centers)—an atomic-level
lattice defect that can selectively absorb light in the
visible region of the spectrum (Collins, 1982; Jackson,
1997). In type I and some type II diamonds, this color
center is often concentrated along parallel slip
planes, so that pink or brown planes (i.e., colored
graining) are seen in an otherwise near-colorless dia-
mond (figure 4). This similarity of color origin is sup-
ported by observations that diamonds can vary from
pink through brown-pink to brown, and that all of
these hues have some similar features (i.e., banded
internal colored graining and a visible spectrum
dominated by a broad 550 nm absorption band of
varying intensity; Collins, 1982). Figure 3. Pink diamonds may be either type I or type
When the coloration is planar, it is thought to II. In this photo, two type I pink diamonds, the small-
have been the result of plastic deformation of the er 0.41 ct Fancy Deep pink pear shape on the left and
diamond while it was in the earth (Collins, 1982). the 1.53 ct Fancy Deep pink square on the right, are
During this deformation, layers of carbon atoms juxtaposed with four type II pinks. The type II pink
that are parallel to the orientation of the applied diamonds range in size from the 1.03 ct Fancy
stress are displaced slightly with respect to one Intense orangy pink heart shape on the lower right to
another along parallel gliding or slip planes. As the 8.01 ct Fancy Vivid pink pear shape in the center.
mentioned above, this situation gives rise to the cre- Photo by Elizabeth Schrader.
ation of a color center of unknown structure along
these slip planes that can in turn produce the spec-
tral feature responsible for the pink or brown color.
diamonds does not use the descriptions “reddish
GIA Color Description Nomenclature for “Pink” pink” and “pinkish red” (this would be similar to
Diamonds. Colors appear different in a given hue the use of color names such as “strong bluish blue”
range depending on their tone and saturation. The or “pale yellowish yellow,” which are not part of
color description GIA gives for colored diamonds on
grading reports is based on the hue designation on the
color wheel (figure 5) or on the tone and saturation of
that hue (see, e.g., King et al., 1994). At certain satura- Figure 4. In many “pink” diamonds, especially
tions and tones, the term pink is used to describe dia- those that are type I, the pink color is distributed
monds in the hue range from reddish purple to unevenly, and is concentrated along parallel
bands. These bands are oriented along the octahe-
orange. Although at higher saturations the hue is
dral {111} planes; they probably are the result of
clearly reddish purple to orange (as indicated by the
plastic deformation of the diamond during its geo-
solid circle next to the hue name in figure 6), at lower logic history in the earth. Photomicrograph by John
saturations and lighter tones the overall color appear- I. Koivula; magnified 15×.
ance is predominantly pink (i.e., pink is the only or
final word in the color description, such as purple-
pink, purplish pink or orangy pink—or any of these
color terms with a “brownish” modifier, as well as
brown-pink). Even at some relatively higher satura-
tions and darker tones, diamonds in the purple-red,
purplish red, red, and orangy red hue ranges also
appear predominantly pink.
Because the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory uses the
term pink to refer to certain combinations of
tone/saturation attributes for a range of color hues,
it is always applied independently of the term red.
This means that our terminology system for colored

PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 131

 Figure 5. This diagram
PURPLISH
RED
RED
ORANGY
illustrates the relatively
PURPLE
RED
RED wide range of hues in
RED
PURPLE
REDDISH
ORANGE
diamonds (indicated by
REDDISH
ORANGE
the arrows) that GIA GTL
PURPLE
associates with the term
YELLOWISH
PURPLE
ORANGE pink. Because pink is used
YELLOW to indicate a color appear-
ORANGE
ance for diamonds, and is
ORANGE not a true hue term, this
YELLOW
VIOLET range also includes orange,
ORANGY
YELLOW
where pale colors can
appear pink. The arrows
BLUISH
VIOLET used here to note the range
YELLOW
of occurrence of pink
VIOLETISH
BLUE diamonds also indicate the
GREENISH
distribution of the two
BLUE
YELLOW types in our sample. While
GREEN there is overlap throughout
YELLOW
the hues, a larger quantity
YELLOW
GREEN
(shown by the wider size of
GREENISH
BLUE the arrow) of type I pinks
YELLOWISH are often “cooler” in
GREEN
GREEN appearance than type II.
BLUE
BLUE GREEN The opposite was noted
GREEN BLUISH
GREEN
for type II diamonds,
which tend to be “warmer”
in appearance.

Figure 6. Each of the eight

tone/saturation grids shown
here relates to one of the
reddish purple red-purple purple-red purplish red
hues in figure 5 with color
appearances described as
pink in the GIA GTL sys-
tem. Each square in a grid
(which is actually a three-
dimensional box in color
space) represents a range of
appearances associated with
TONE

a color term. The shaded red orangy red reddish orange orange
areas in each hue indicate
boxes that would be associ-
ated with a description that
is predominantly pink. It is
important to remember that
these boxes include pink
descriptions modified by
orangy, purplish, purple,
brown, and brownish, as
SATURATION
well as simply pink.

132 Pink Diamonds Gems & Gemology Summer 2002

 cific period within the past few years. Each of these
TABLE 2. Distribution of the sample pink diamonds by diamonds was described on our laboratory reports as
fancy grade and diamond type.
being predominantly pink in color appearance (i.e.,
Overall Type I Type II pink was the final term in the color description;
Grade
table 3 indicates the color breakdown for the four
No. % No. % No. %
Faint 114 8 64 5 50 15
stronger grade ranges, which represent the largest
Very Light 78 5 49 5 29 9 number of samples). The diamonds in the overall
Light 170 11 99 8 71 22 group ranged from 0.06 to more than 50 ct (92
Fancy Light 156 10 104 9 52 16 weighed more than 5 ct, and 30 of these weighed
Fancy 488 33 402 34 86 26 more than 9 ct). Some gemological observations
Fancy Intense 282 19 257 22 25 8 could not be made on all the diamonds in this group
Fancy Deep 147 10 142 12 5 2 because of time constraints in the grading service or
Fancy Vivid 55 4 49 5 6 2 the type of service (e.g., a less comprehensive “iden-
Total 1,490 100% 1,166 100% 324 100% tification and origin” report) requested by the client.

Grading and Testing Methods. We used the GIA

our grading terminology either). Gem Trade Laboratory methodology for color grad-
It is also important to note that color nomencla- ing colored diamonds to describe all of these study
ture systems are not universal, so the visual appear- samples (see King et al., 1994). Trained laboratory
ances associated with terms such as pink and red in staff evaluated each of the diamonds using a stan-
diamonds are not necessarily the same as for color dardized D65 “daylight” lighting environment (as
naming systems for other materials, such as fabrics, provided by the Macbeth Judge II illumination box).
paints, or other gemstones. Typically from three to six staff members indepen-
dently compared the overall face-up characteristic
color of each diamond to GIA colored diamond
MATERIALS AND METHODS color references within this viewing box.
Samples. Since the 1950s, many thousands of col- Equipment used for the gemological examina-
ored diamonds have been submitted annually to the tions included a standard gemological microscope, a
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory for identification and/or GIA Gem Instruments ultraviolet unit with long-
grading reports. For the present study, we gathered wave (365 nm) and short-wave (254 nm) lamps, and a
data on a group of 1,490 diamonds (see table 2; for desk-model prism spectroscope. For a representative
specific data within each group, please see the group of stones, we recorded visible absorption spec-
Gems & Gemology data depository on the Internet tra with a Hitachi U4001 spectrophotometer
[www.gia.edu/gandg/ggDataDepository.cfm]), the (350–750 nm) at cryogenic (liquid nitrogen) tempera-
total number submitted to GIA GTL during a spe- tures, and infrared spectra with a Nicolet 510 FTIR

TABLE 3. “Pink” color descriptions in the sample diamonds for the four stronger
grade ranges.

Fancy Fancy Intense Fancy Deep Fancy Vivid

Total no.
No. % No. % No. % No. %

Purple-pink 33 7 10 3 2 1 5 10 50
Purplish pink 70 14 140 50 35 24 38 69 283
Pink 115 24 112 40 54 37 9 16 290
Orangy pink 81 17 20 7 19 13 3 5 123
Brownish purple-pink 7 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 8
Brownish purplish pink 11 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 11
Brownish pink 64 13 0 0 2 1 0 0 66
Brownish orangy pink 47 10 0 0 19 13 0 0 66
Brown-pink 60 12 0 0 15 10 0 0 75
Total 488 100% 282 100% 147 100% 55 100% 972

PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 133

 BOX A: UNDERSTANDING THE RELATIONSHIP OF PINK AND “RED”
DIAMONDS IN GIA’S COLOR GRADING SYSTEM
Diamonds described as predominantly red are among Although occasional reports have been pub-
the most intriguing and highly valued gems in the lished, very few red diamonds have been document-
world, both because of the richness of their color and ed in detail (see, e.g., Kane, 1987). Table A-1, which
their extreme rarity (figure A-1). Trade and public lists diamonds in the public domain that have been
recognition of red diamonds expanded greatly follow- given a “red” color description by GIA GTL since
ing the record $926,316-per-carat price paid for a 0.95 the sale of the Hancock Red in 1987, gives some per-
ct purplish red diamond (known as the Hancock Red) spective on the rarity of predominantly red dia-
at a Christie’s auction in New York in 1987 (Kane, monds (as we have done throughout this article, we
1987; Federman, 1992). A decade later, in 1997, refer here to diamonds for which the predominant
Christie’s Geneva offered a 1.75 ct diamond crystal color appears red: orangy red, red, purplish red, pur-
that was described by GIA GTL as purplish red (figure ple-red, brownish red, and brown-red).
A-2). Typically, rough diamonds are not offered at auc- There are two aspects of the GIA Gem Trade
tion, because the outcome of their color appearance Laboratory’s colored diamond color grading system
after cutting would still be in question. Nonetheless, that, when combined, describe a diamond’s color
diamonds described as being predominantly red are so appearance. One is the fancy grade, which represents
rare that it was feasible in this instance. At auction, regions of the combined effect of tone and saturation
this 1.75 ct crystal sold for $805,000 (we do not know on the face-up appearance of a colored diamond. The
if it was subsequently faceted). The staff of the GIA other is the color description, which locates the hue
Gem Trade Laboratory first examined this diamond range and, at times, more specific areas within the
crystal 20 years earlier, when they confirmed its natu- fancy grade. For example, within the grade range of
ral color. As recently as December 2001, Phillips (New Fancy Deep (which describes diamonds that are mod-
York) sold a 1.92 ct Fancy red diamond for approxi- erate to dark in tone and moderate to strong in satu-
mately $860,000 per carat, the second highest per- ration) are areas described as pink, brownish pink,
carat price paid at auction for a gemstone.

TABLE A-1. “Red” diamonds in the public domain

documented by GIA.a

Year last
Weight Shape Color grade Featured byb examined by
(ct) GIA GTL

5.11 Shield Fancy red William Goldberg 1997

1.92 Rectangle Fancy red Phillip’s New York 2001
1.78 Oval Fancy purplish red Argyle Tender 1997
1.75 Rough Purplish red c Christie’s Geneva 1997
1.12 Square Fancy purplish red Christie’s Geneva 2001
1.06 Oval Fancy purplish red Argyle Tender 1998
1.00 Pear Fancy purplish red Christie’s New York 1997
0.95 Round Fancy purplish red Christie’s New York 1987
0.75 Rectangle Fancy purplish red Christie’s Geneva 1998
0.73 Rectangle Fancy red Christie’s Hong Kong 2001
0.59 Oval Fancy purplish red Christie’s Hong Kong 2000
0.54 Emerald Fancy purplish red Argyle Tender 1998
0.42 Emerald Fancy purplish red Argyle Tender 1997
0.41 Round Fancy purplish red Christie’s New York 2001
0.25 Oval Fancy red Christie’s New York 1996
Figure A-1. This 5.11 ct Fancy red shield shape is an
a While
many people in the industry may describe a diamond as red, the
example of this rare color in diamonds. In the experi- lack of a systematic approach to that determination makes such state-
ence of the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, and as seen in ments difficult to substantiate. Because of this, the table presents only GIA-
table A-1, most of the diamonds described as predomi- documented red diamonds in the public domain. Not all diamonds graded
red by GIA are included in this table because of client confidentiality.
nantly red are “cooler” in appearance and termed pur- b Company that has promoted or otherwise placed the information in the

plish red. This diamond, which is “red” without any public domain.
modifier, is quite unusual. Courtesy of William c Rough diamonds are not given “Fancy grades”; rather they are only given

a color description.
Goldberg Diamond Corp.; photo by Elizabeth Schrader.

134 PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

 sioned about the prospect of having a diamond of this
color often believe that moderately dark, moderately
strong pinks are red because they lack points of refer-
ence. Alternatively, some dealers feel diamonds that
are described as red are too pale because they don’t
look like rubies; although “red” diamonds represent
the strongest, darkest color appearances in their hue
range, they may not look like other “red” gemstones.
Or, only having seen a purplish red diamond, a dealer
may incorrectly feel that a warmer red is “brownish”
(similar situations also have been encountered with
warmer pink diamonds). In the GIA GTL system, the
appearance associated with the description “red”
should be and is related to diamond, not other gems,
Figure A-2. “Red” diamonds are so rare that this 1.75 so the color appearance of red in diamond may be
ct purplish red crystal sold at the Christie’s Geneva very different from red in garnet, ruby, or spinel.
November 1997 auction for $805,000. Courtesy of
From the limited number of predominantly red
Christie’s.
diamonds seen by GIA, it appears their cause of color
is the same broad 550 nm absorption band, with an
associated band at 390 nm, that is found in the spec-
brown-pink, and pink-brown. A Fancy Deep pink dia- tra of pink diamonds, except that in red diamonds it is
mond is located in the moderate to lighter toned, considerably stronger. Our observations over the last
more saturated portion of the Fancy Deep range, several years have not revealed any distinctive gemo-
whereas Fancy Deep pink-brown diamonds are in the logical features associated with diamonds described as
darker, weaker portion of the range. red as compared to their pink counterparts.
This relationship of fancy grade and color descrip-
tions in GIA’s system is also consistent with the
term red. In our experience to date, diamonds de-
scribed as red or reddish occur in a limited range of
tone and saturation. Consequently, we have applied Figure A-3. This illustration reproduces the darker,
only one fancy grade thus far: “Fancy.” Since the most saturated (lower right) area of the pink grid in
range of color depth in which red diamonds are the fold-out chart accompanying this article. The
transition in color appearance between diamonds
known is not wide, additional fancy grades have not
described as “pink” and “red” is smooth, if often
been required. subtle. Nevertheless, the tone and saturation neces-
As with the transition from one grade to the next sary to yield a face-up color appearance described as
for pink diamonds, the transition in appearance predominantly red is rarely encountered.
between pink and red is smooth (figure A-3). The
majority of diamonds described as red to date tend to
cluster near the pink/red description boundary (in the
GIA GTL system, the typical transition is between Fancy Vivid
either Fancy Deep or Fancy Vivid “pink” and Fancy
“red”). As is the case throughout the system, dia-
monds near a boundary may have a similar appear-
ance yet be described differently. While the appear-
ance difference between pink and red may be subtle
at times, the tone and saturation of color that results Fancy Deep
in the face-up appearance associated with red is sel- Pink
dom encountered.
A special problem with red diamonds is that few
people in the trade ever have the opportunity to see
significant quantities of them. Just as for pink dia-
monds, a red “determination” requires the use of
consistent methodology and comparison to known
references. Without examples readily available in the
market, opinions can vary greatly regarding what a Fancy Red
“red” diamond should look like. Dealers impas-

PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 135

spectrometer (6000–400 cm−1) at room temperature.
Diamond type was determined by one or more meth-
ods, including absorption spectra (by use of the prism
spectroscope or an infrared spectrometer), short-wave
UV transparency, and photoluminescence (PL) spec-
troscopy using a Renishaw laser Raman spectrome-
ter. It should be mentioned that these two type cate-
gories (I and II) are not completely distinct (i.e., there

Figure 7. These two pie charts illustrate the distri-

bution of the 1,166 type I and 324 type II pink dia-
monds in the sample by several weight categories.
Note that type II pink diamonds tend to be larger
than their type I counterparts. Figure 8. As indicated in figure 7, type II pink dia-
monds tend to be larger than type I pinks. This
unusually large (50.08 ct) Fancy orangy pink dia-
WEIGHT mond is a type II. Courtesy of Julius Klein
Diamonds, Inc.; photo by Elizabeth Schrader.

TYPE I
5.00-9.99 ct is no strict boundary between them). As the nitrogen
10.00+ ct
4%
1% content decreases, the two types become less easy to
3.00-4.99 ct
3% distinguish. Historically, the type II category was
defined simply by the lack of nitrogen-related fea-
tures in the infrared spectrum of a diamond (Robert-
son et al., 1934). With the increased sensitivity of
1.00-2.99 ct < 0.99 ct newer infrared spectrometers, weak nitrogen-related
37% 55%
spectral features can be detected more easily.
Consequently, the number of diamonds considered
type II has tended to decline (for a discussion of dia-
mond type, see Fritsch and Scarratt, 1992).

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

TYPE II
Diamond Type. Of the 1,490 diamonds examined for
10.00+ ct this study, 1,166 were type I and 324 were type II.
5.00-9.99 ct 3%
9%
Weight. Twelve percent of our type II samples were
3.00-4.99 ct 5 ct or larger, whereas only 5% of our type I dia-
13%
< 0.99 ct monds were in this category (see figure 7). This is
26%
consistent with observations made over the years
that large diamonds (in colors other than yellow)
frequently are type II (see figure 8).
1.00-2.99 ct
49%
Color Appearance. The three diagrams in the fold-
out chart illustrate the wide range of color appear-
ances associated with pink diamonds at three posi-
tions on the hue circle (i.e., purplish red, red, and
orangy red). Each diagram shows the lighter, less-
saturated colors in the upper left, and the darker,

136 PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

 FANCY GRADE

OVERALL
Fancy
Figure 10. The colors of pink diamonds transition
Vivid Faint
Fancy 4% 8% Very smoothly from one hue to the next. The diamonds
Deep Light shown here illustrate four of the more typical hue
10% 5% appearances encountered in this study. The 0.28 ct
Light marquise on the left is Fancy Intense purple-pink,
11% the 0.41 ct round brilliant is Fancy Intense purplish
Fancy pink, the 0.48 ct emerald cut next to it is Fancy
Intense
19% Intense pink, and the 0.33 ct rectangular diamond
on the far right is Fancy Intense orangy pink. Photo
Fancy Fancy by Jennifer Vaccaro and Elizabeth Schrader.
33% Light
10%

more-saturated colors toward the lower right. The

TYPE I transitions among hue, tone, and saturation for pink
diamonds are relatively smooth, with subtle differ-
Fancy
Faint
ences in appearance typically encountered between
Vivid Very
Fancy 5% 5% Light neighboring colors. Understanding the appearances
Deep 5% of pink diamonds is challenging because they occur
12% Light
8% in such a wide range of hues (again, see figure 5).
Fancy This is very different from the situation of, for
Light example, blue diamonds (King et al., 1998), where
9%
Fancy the hue range is very limited.
Intense
22%
Fancy GIA GTL Fancy Grade Terminology. The 1,490
34%
study samples covered all of the GIA GTL fancy
grades except Fancy Dark. For pink diamonds, this
color grade usually is dominated by brown (and
therefore typically results in descriptions of pink-
brown, pinkish brown, or brown). Figure 9 shows
TYPE II
how the 1,490 diamonds fell into the remaining
Fancy eight grade categories used by GIA GTL.
Fancy Vivid
Fancy Deep 2%
Intense 2% Hue. There is a smooth gradation from one hue to
8% the next in pink diamonds (figure 10). While there
Faint was complete overlap of the color ranges for both
Very
15%
Light types I and II in the study samples, type I pink dia-
9%
Fancy
26%
Light
Fancy 23%
Light Figure 9. These pie charts illustrate the percentages
15%
of the 1,490 pink diamonds studied in each of the
GIA GTL fancy grade categories. Note that a higher
percentage of type I pink diamonds (1,166 samples)
were found in the more saturated grade ranges of
Fancy Deep, Fancy Intense, and Fancy Vivid.

PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 137

 monds more commonly exhibit “cooler” hues (i.e.,
toward purple), whereas type II pink diamonds more
CLARITY GRADE commonly occur in the “warmer” hue ranges (i.e.,
toward orange). Of the 324 type II diamonds, 42%
were in the warmer hues (with descriptions such as
OVERALL brownish orangy pink, brown-pink, and orangy
Flawless or pink), whereas of the 1,166 type I diamonds, only
Internally Flawless 29% were in that range.
7%

Tone and Saturation. The tone and saturation ranges

I of pink diamonds can vary greatly depending on
14% VVS
15%
their hue (again, see figure 6). As illustrated in figure
9, 66% of the 1,490 diamonds fell into the four
SI stronger-saturation and darker-tone categories
35% (Fancy, Fancy Intense, Fancy Deep, and Fancy
VS
29% Vivid). It was interesting to note that this group
encompassed 73% of the 1,166 type I diamonds but
only 38% of the 324 type II diamonds. Based on the
samples in our study (and our experience in gener-
al), type I pink diamonds are almost twice as likely
TYPE I as their type II counterparts to be stronger and dark-
Flawless or
er in color. Type II pink diamonds are generally
Internally Flawless lighter in tone, although they vary in saturation
7% from very weak to moderately strong.

I
VVS Microscopic Examination. Clarity. Pink diamonds
17%
10% tend to be included, as is reflected in their clarity
grades (figure 11). Of the 691 diamonds examined for
VS clarity, only 7% were in the Flawless or Internally
SI
39%
27% Flawless (FL/IF) grades, whereas almost half (49%)
were in the Slightly Included (SI) or Included (I)
grades. Overall, the most common clarity grade
range was SI (35%). However, 56% of the 488 type I
diamonds in this group had the lower clarity grades
(SI and I), compared to only 32% of the 203 type II
TYPE II diamonds. Thus, on average, type II pink diamonds
receive higher clarity grades (FL/IF, VVS, and VS)
Flawless or
Internally Flawless than type I pink diamonds.
9%
Inclusions. Pink diamonds may exhibit fractures or
I
8%
cleavages as well as mineral inclusions. The internal
features observed in our study samples were typical
SI
24% VVS of those generally seen in other included diamonds.
28% Dark, opaque graphite spots (figure 12, left) or pin-
point inclusions were more common in the type II
VS
31%

Figure 11. These pie charts illustrate the breakdown

by clarity grade for the 691 pink diamonds exam-
ined for this characteristic, overall and by type.
Note that the (203) type II samples were generally
higher in clarity than the (488) type I samples.

138 PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

 Figure 12. The mineral inclusions
in the pink diamonds studied
were typical of those generally
seen in other diamonds. Left: Type
II pinks were more likely to have
dark, opaque graphite spots. Right:
This type I diamond contains
inclusions of garnet and pyroxene.
Photomicrographs by Thomas H.
Gelb and John I. Koivula; magni-
fied 50× and 15×, respectively).

pink diamonds than in the type I pinks (similar- Graining. Both internal and surface graining are fre-
appearing inclusions have been observed in blue dia- quently seen in pink diamonds. The photomicro-
monds; see King et al., 1998). In our study sample, graphs in figure 13 illustrate some common forms
the type I pink diamonds more often contained min- of this graining. Surface graining typically appears as
eral inclusions such as garnet and pyroxene (figure linear patterns that cross facet junctions (figure
12, right), or anhedral crystals of diamond. 13A). If the linear pattern is extensive and reflects

A
Figure 13. Surface and internal graining were
common features in the pink diamonds studied
for clarity. Surface graining (A) appears as a line
or lines crossing facet junctions; when there are
numerous lines, as seen here at 23× magnifica-
tion, the clarity grade may be affected. Internal
graining can appear in a number of different
forms: as internal reflective planes (B, magnified
10×), as parallel whitish bands (C, magnified
20×), and as an overall whitish haze (D, magni-
fied 10×). Photomicrographs by Vincent J. Cracco.

B D

PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 139

 colors of graining in the same diamond is uncom-
mon, but we have observed it on several occasions.
This graining can occur in one or more planes orient-
ed along octahedral {111} directions.
In addition to surface lines and reflective planes,
internal graining also can appear as whitish bands
(figure 13C), or as an overall hazy appearance (fig-
ure 13D). When observed with magnification, this
haziness may appear cottony, wispy, or silky, and
can impart a shimmer- or rain-like quality that
may affect the transparency and clarity grade of the
Figure 14. Color zoning may appear as thin, discrete, diamond.
parallel bands. In this 2.12 ct oval brilliant, very nar-
Among our study samples, the type I pink dia-
row color zones are visible in the girdle, paralleling
the table facet. The orientation of such bands may
monds were more likely to have surface grain lines
affect the face-up color appearance. Photomicrograph and reflective internal planes. In contrast, graining
by Vincent J. Cracco; magnified 20×. in the type II samples was more likely to appear as
an overall haze with varying degrees of transparency
rather than as distinct bands.

around the diamond when it is viewed in the face- Color Zoning. Color zoning was noted in 46% of the
up position, it can lower the clarity grade. Even if diamonds examined. This zoning most often ap-
there are only a few surface lines, they are noted in peared as discrete, parallel bands of darker pink color
the “Comments” section of the grading report for or alternating pink and colorless areas (again, see fig-
identification purposes. ure 4). Less commonly, color zoning was seen as an
Internal planar graining that reaches the surface is indistinct distribution of color. Zoning was noted
sometimes seen as reflective sheets that may appear more often in those pink diamonds that displayed a
colorless, pink, or brown (figure 13B); such graining greater depth of color; it is likely the darker color
may impact both the clarity grade and the color contributed to making the distinction between col-
description. The presence of both pink and brown ored and colorless, or differently colored, areas more
visible. As mentioned previously, the type I pink dia-
monds in our study were more likely to display
stronger, darker colors. Therefore, it was not surpris-
Figure 15. This pink diamond displays bright interfer- ing to find color zoning observed in 65% of our type
ence colors in a mosaic pattern when it is observed I samples, but in only 12% of the type II diamonds
with magnification between crossed polarizing filters. examined. In the more intensely colored type I dia-
This anomalous birefringence is evidence that the monds, we observed the pink coloration as broad
diamond was subjected to plastic deformation while bands oriented parallel to the internal graining. In
it was in the earth. Photomicrograph by Vincent J. some samples, the color zoning occurred as thin, dis-
Cracco; magnified 23×. crete bands (figure 14) that appeared either pink or
brown depending on the direction of the illumina-
tion. In type II diamonds, banding may be present
but is much less obvious.

Anomalous Birefringence (Strain). As noted above,

pink diamonds may be subject to plastic deforma-
tion in the earth. The resulting strain pattern can be
seen when crossed polarizing filters are used (figure
15). These patterns may parallel the orientation of
the pink color zoning, but more typically they are
seen as a mosaic arrangement of bright interference
colors that change as the diamond is tilted during
observation.

140 PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

Ultraviolet Fluorescence. In our sample, 1,363 pink exhibited no or a faint reaction and 56% displayed
diamonds of both types were examined for fluores- medium to strong fluorescence.
cence to short- and long-wave UV radiation. We More than half of the type I pink diamonds
found that 79% showed either no reaction or a faint exhibited a medium to strong reaction to LWUV,
reaction to short-wave UV (SWUV), whereas approx- most commonly blue in color. The same samples
imately 20% exhibited medium fluorescence, and exhibited no or only a faint reaction to SWUV, usu-
only 1% exhibited strong fluorescence (figure 16). ally blue or yellow.
When exposed to long-wave UV (LWUV), 44% Most of the type II pink diamonds exhibited faint
to medium fluorescence to LWUV, usually blue;
84% showed only a faint (usually blue) or no reaction
to SWUV. It has been our experience that increasing
Figure 16. In general, the pink diamonds examined the duration of SWUV exposure by a number of sec-
for fluorescence (1,363 samples) showed a stronger onds tends to strengthen the intensity of the fluores-
reaction to long-wave UV radiation than to short- cence reaction (to a level similar to the LWUV reac-
wave UV. This same pattern was consistent for tion). On occasion, type II pink diamonds display
both the type I and type II diamonds, although medium-to-strong orange fluorescence to both kinds
type I pink diamonds tended to have a stronger
of UV radiation (Anderson, 1960; Scarratt, 1987; and
reaction (medium to strong) to long-wave UV than
their type II counterparts (faint to medium).
our own observations). These diamonds commonly
exhibited a 575 nm absorption line at room tempera-
ture (seen with a desk-model spectroscope) and an
FLUORESCENCE adjacent emission line on the low energy side.
In some diamonds, the fluorescence reaction
appeared “transparent,” whereas in others it appeared
SHORT-WAVE UV cloudy, turbid, or chalky. The type I pink diamonds
more frequently appeared chalky to both LWUV and
Strong
1% SWUV, whereas their type II counterparts usually did
not exhibit a chalky appearance.

Medium Infrared/Visible Spectra. Figures 17A and 17B depict

20% None
31% typical infrared spectra of a type I and type II pink
diamond, respectively. These are consistent with the
spectra observed for diamonds in this study.
Faint Absorption features in the one-phonon region
48% (between 1000 and 1400 cm−1) indicate the presence
of nitrogen in a diamond (Fritsch and Scarratt, 1992).
As mentioned above, as the nitrogen concentration
decreases, the one-phonon absorption decreases.
When this absorption is not detectable, the diamond
LONG-WAVE UV is by definition type II.
The dominant feature in the visible spectra of
pink diamonds is a broad absorption band centered
Strong None
19% 16%
around 550 nm (figures 17C and 17D) that, as men-
tioned above, is responsible for the color in most pink
diamonds (Collins, 1982). Typically, the 550 nm
Faint absorption band occurs together with a band at 390
Medium 28%
37% nm (Collins, 1982). This applies to both type II and
type I diamonds, although in the case of type I dia-
monds (figure 17C), the 390 nm band is superim-
posed on the N3 center. Further evidence that the
550 and 390 nm bands are linked is that they in-
crease or decrease together in response to ther-
mochromic or photochromic (heat- or light-related)

PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 141

effects (C. Welbourn, pers. comm., 2002). line, we occasionally noted absorption bands at 494
In addition to absorptions at 550 and 390 nm, the and 503 nm (associated with the H3 color center
visible spectra of many pink diamonds contain an [Collins, 1982]).
absorption line at 415 nm. This feature is due to the
N3 center (Collins, 1982). In type I pink diamonds,
the N3 center overlaps the 390 nm absorption band, DISCUSSION
and is typically accompanied by an increase in Color Relationships. GIA GTL color descriptions
absorption toward the ultraviolet. The N3 center in for pink diamonds depend on variations in hue,
type II diamonds is generally very weak to nonexis- tone, and/or saturation. The subtle differences that
tent due to the low nitrogen content; consequently, can occur in these three color attributes, indepen-
the 390 nm absorption may be clearly observed in dently or in combination, add to the complexity of
the spectrum (figure 17D). consistently determining the fancy color grade or
In type I diamonds, in addition to the 415 nm description of pink diamonds. For example:

Figure 17. Spectra A and B depict typical infrared spectra of type I and type II pink diamonds. Absorption
between 1000 cm−1 and 1400 cm−1 approximates the concentration of nitrogen in a diamond, and in turn
determines the diamond type. Spectra C and D represent typical visible spectra of type I and type II pink
diamonds. Both these spectra exhibit broad absorption at 550 nm; however, type I diamonds show strong
absorption at 415 nm, whereas in type II diamonds the 415 nm absorption is absent or very weak.

INFRARED SPECTRA

16 16
ABSORPTION COEFFIECIENT ( cm-1)

14 A A 14 B B
Type I Type II
12 12

10 10

8 8

6 6

4 4

5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000

WAVENUMBER (cm ) -1

VISIBLE SPECTRA

10 8.5
ABSORPTION COEFFIECIENT ( cm-1)

9 C 8.0 D
Type I 390 Type II
8
7.5
415
7 415
550
7.0
503 550
494
6
6.5
5

6.0
4
300 400 500 600 700 800 300 400 500 600 700 800

WAVELENGTH (nm)

142 PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

 • “Warmer” (i.e., orangy) pink diamonds may be
confused with brownish pink if color is not
compared to color references using consistent
observation methodology (figure 18). It is not
uncommon for observers who see a “warmer”
color appearance to associate it with low satu-
ration (i.e., with the terms brownish or brown)
instead of with a certain hue. Relatively strong
warmer color appearances, such as orangy Figure 19. Pink diamonds with a noticeable purple
pink, can be incorrectly valued if their color is component to their color may appear less saturated
not analyzed properly. if compared to a pink diamond of warmer color. For
example, the two diamonds seen here are consid-
• “Cooler” (i.e., purplish) pink diamonds often ered to be of similar saturation in the GIA grading
appear weaker than warmer pinks of similar system. To the inexperienced observer, however,
tone and saturation (figure 19), as has been the cooler pink of the marquise on the left might
appear weaker than the warmer pink of the heart
shape on the right. Photos by Elizabeth Schrader.

Figure 18. When evaluating the appearance of a col-

ored diamond, it is necessary to compare the stone
in question to known color references. If this is not
done, it is difficult to judge correctly what noted in color studies for other materials
attribute(s) are affecting appearance. “Warm”-color (Albers, 1975). Again, if such diamonds are not
pink diamonds are often considered weaker (i.e., analyzed using consistent methodology and
browner) unless they are compared to graded-brown- comparison to known references, such colors
ish/brown diamonds. On the top, a pink diamond may be graded lower for strength.
(left) is shown next to an orangy pink diamond. In
this comparison, it is easy to misinterpret the orangy It is important to remember that all of these fac-
pink color appearance as brownish. On the bottom, tors (hue, tone, and saturation) are a continuum in
the same orangy pink diamond (now on the left) is color space. The GIA grading system has estab-
placed next to a brownish pink marquise—and the lished boundaries for groups of diamonds represent-
difference in color appearance is apparent. Photos by ing a range of tones and saturations of color within
Elizabeth Schrader and Don Mengason.
this continuum. For different hues, the tone and sat-
uration boundaries will differ because of the natural
range in which that color occurs (e.g., just as blue
occurs in a narrower range of saturation than yellow
[see again, King et al., 1998], pink occurs in a slight-
ly narrower range than orangy pink). The fancy
grade and color description boundaries gradate sub-
tly around the hue circle (King et al., 1994). As a
result, for each hue (e.g., red [pink] or orangy red
[orangy pink], the range of tones and saturation may
differ from one fancy grade to another. That is, as
illustrated in figure 20, a pink diamond that falls
within the Fancy Intense grade range may be simi-
lar in tone and saturation to an orangy pink dia-
mond in the Fancy range.

Clarity. The primary importance of color in the val-

uation of colored diamonds is clearly supported
with pink diamonds. As shown in figure 11, over
half (56%) of the sample diamonds were of SI or I
clarity grades, yet dealers indicate that this grading

PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 143

 red orangy red
Figure 20. Because differ-
ent hues encompass dif-
Fancy
Fancy HUE ferent ranges of tone and
Intense saturation, it is not
Intense
uncommon to encounter
two diamonds of similar
tone and saturation but
Fancy
Intense different fancy grades, as

er
Fancy seen here for these two—

ng
stro
Fancy Intense pink and
Fancy orangy pink—dia-

darker TONE lighter

N
monds. The chart shows a

TIO
URA
section in color space,

SAT
with different fancy
grades for the red (pink)
and orangy red (orangy

ker
wea
pink) hues denoted by
three-dimensional
“boxes.” Photos by
Elizabeth Schrader.

aspect is of secondary importance to that of color in ration) of color in a pink diamond (which is the
determining the value of a pink diamond (M. basis for judging face-up color appearance; see King
Kirschenbaum, pers. comm., 2002). et al., 1994). In our sample, we found a direct corre-
Type II diamonds have been noted to be of high- lation between more intense or more numerous
er clarity than type I diamonds (Scarratt, 1987). This banded colored graining (that is appropriately ori-
observation was supported by our study, as 68% of ented) and a stronger face-up color appearance.
the type II pink diamonds in our sample group were
FL/IF, VVS, or VS. Manufacturing. Many of the concerns manufactur-
ers have when working with pink diamonds are
Graining and Color Zoning. As mentioned previ- similar to those discussed previously for blue dia-
ously, the graining and color zoning in type I pink monds (King et al., 1998). To achieve the best face-
diamonds often occurs in discrete bands. The num- up color appearance, diamond cutters often use
ber of planes and their intensity of color affect the French culets and half-moon facets on the pavilion
overall depth (i.e., the combination of tone and satu- around the girdle (Watermeyer, 1991). These tech-

Figure 21. When pink diamonds are manufactured, the potential difference in color appearance between
the rough and the faceted gem can be dramatic. This series show the original cleaved rough (left), the gem
being cut from this rough at an interim stage in the faceting process (17.39 ct; middle), and the final 12.74
ct Fancy Vivid orangy pink diamond (right). Courtesy of Jacques Mouw; photos by Elizabeth Schrader.

144 PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

niques help cutters achieve the strongest face-up
color with an even distribution.
As mentioned above, color zoning in pink dia-
monds can affect the intensity of color. When such
zones are present, their orientation relative to the
table during cutting is critical to obtaining the best
face-up appearance for a given facet arrangement.
One important distinction in the manufacture of
pink diamonds is the change in color appearance
that can occur during the cutting process. Manu-
facturers have reported observing a range of changes
during the polishing process. When hot from the
polishing wheel, some pink diamonds may appear
weaker (closer to colorless) than their stable color.
Immediately on cooling, the same diamonds may
appear stronger than their stable color. This color
change is temporary, and the diamonds do not
retain the stronger pink color. Input energy (from
heat due to the friction created by the rotating pol-
ishing wheel) produces these changes (M. Witriol,
pers. comm., 2002).
As is often the case with colored diamond rough,
the change in color appearance from the original
rough to the faceted diamond can be significant.
Figure 21 shows the transition in appearance of a
diamond that when finished was graded Fancy
Vivid orangy pink.

Spectroscopy. The broad region of absorption cen- Figure 22. With the discovery of the Argyle mine in
tered at about 550 nm is due to a color center of Western Australia, pink diamonds have become
unknown structure along slip planes in a pink dia- more available and gained broader commercial
mond (Raal, 1958; Collins, 1982; Fritsch, 1998). The importance. As illustrated here, pink diamond
broad band at 550 nm is always accompanied by a melee and even larger single stones have estab-
band at about 390 nm (again, see figure 17C and D). lished a special niche in the gem and jewelry indus-
try. The Fancy orangy pink diamond in the ring
Shigley and Fritsch (1993) presented a comparison of
weighs 1.15 ct; whereas the cross, dangle earrings,
the visible spectra of three diamonds (red-brown, pur-
and brooch are set with a total weight in pink dia-
plish red, and purplish pink) to illustrate the presence monds of 0.33 ct, 1.14 ct, and 1.43 ct, respectively.
of the same 550 nm absorption band in differing Courtesy of Alan Friedman Co., Beverly Hills,
intensity in each spectrum. In our sample, we also California; photo © Harold & Erica Van Pelt.
noted the increasing strength of the 550 nm absorp-
tion band with greater depth of the pink-to-red color.

stones broader commercial importance in the jewel-

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ry marketplace (figure 22).
The beauty and relative rarity of pink diamonds This report is based on the largest sample of pink
have made them highly valued and desired through diamonds published to date. With regard to the two
the centuries. Although they have been recovered types in which pink diamonds occur, I and II, this
from a number of localities around the world, his- study confirmed that while the gemological charac-
torically their production has been quite sporadic. teristics associated with pink diamonds in these
Only in the past 20 years has one source, the Argyle two categories may overlap, in the majority of cases
mine in Australia, produced a consistent supply of there are some general differences in color appear-
pink diamonds, which has given these special gem- ance, clarity, and graining.

PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 145

 A key goal of this study was to illustrate aspects range of tones and saturations in some hue cate-
of the color grading of pink diamonds, which span a gories, and the importance of using consistent
wide range of color hues, tones, and saturations. observation methodology and established color ref-
Again, this large sample confirmed the broader erences in the color grading of colored diamonds.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS assisted with the Horizon computer management system
Mr. King is laboratory projects officer, Mr. Gelb is staff retrieval of data on pink diamonds. Kim Rockwell, staff gemol-
gemologist, and Mr. Hall is analytical equipment supervisor at ogist in GIA GTL Identification in Carlsbad, and David Kondo,
the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory (GTL) in New York. Dr. staff gemologist in GIA GTL Identification in New York, collect-
Shigley is director of GIA Research, and Mr. Guhin is grading ed visible spectra on a selection of pink diamonds. Wuyi
lab manager at GIA GTL, in Carlsbad, California. Wang, research scientist in GIA GTL Identification in New
York, offered comments on the spectra. Elizabeth Schrader,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The authors thank Thomas M. digital imaging operator at GIA GTL in New York, pho-
Moses, vice-president of Identification Services at GIA GTL in tographed and created composite illustrations of many of the
New York, for his comments and suggestions. Akira Hyatt, diamonds in this article. Martin Kirschenbaum of M. Kirschen-
staff gemologist at GIA GTL in New York, assisted in the baum Trading, Lewis Wolf of Lewis Wolf Trading, Mates
selection of images and determining their color relationship. Witriol, and Christopher M. Welbourn of De Beers DTC
Kim Cino, administrative director of GIA GTL in Carlsbad, Research Centre provided insights and helpful information.

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GIA PINK DIAMOND

COLOR CHART
To purchase a laminated copy of the
GIA PINK DIAMOND COLOR CHART
in this issue, contact the
GEMS & GEMOLOGY subscriptions
department at (800) 421-7250,
ext. 7142 or (760) 603-4000,
ext. 7142 or dortiz@gia.edu.

PINK DIAMONDS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 147

 NOTES & NEW TECHNIQUES

NEW CHROMIUM- AND

VANADIUM-BEARING GARNETS FROM
TRANOROA, MADAGASCAR
By Karl Schmetzer, Thomas Hainschwang, Heinz-Jürgen Bernhardt, and Lore Kiefert

In June 2001, we obtained a parcel of about 30

faceted garnets from southern Madagascar with
Pyrope-spessartine garnets from Tranoroa, in south-
unusual coloration (see, e.g., figure 1). According to
ern Madagascar, contain appreciable Cr and some-
our supplier, these garnets had been mined recently
what lower V contents. Although these elements are
responsible for the color-change behavior of similar from a new area near Tranoroa, about 60 km south-
garnets from the nearby Bekily area, the Tranoroa west of Bekily (figure 2). We do not know the
samples show only a slight change in color appear- amount of this material that has been mined to
ance from day or fluorescent light (brownish purple- date. Both the Tranoroa and Bekily localities belong
red) to incandescent light (purplish red). Charac- to a region formed by several metamorphic belts
teristic internal features in the Tranoroa garnets consisting of high-grade metamorphic rocks of
include networks of rutile needles and strain patterns Precambrian age (Windley et al., 1994). More infor-
caused by anomalous double refraction. Additional mation on the geology, mining, and production of
inclusions are graphite, quartz, negative crystals, garnets from the Bekily area can be found in
apatite, zircon, and monazite. One Cr-bearing spes-
Schmetzer et al. (2001).
sartine from the same area is also described.
The present study was undertaken to character-
ize these new garnets, which differ from those pre-
viously described from Madagascar with regard to

G em-quality pyrope-spessartine garnets have

been known from Tanzania and Sri Lanka
since the late 1970s. Recently, two important
varieties of these intermediate garnets have come
their color and color behavior.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

from the Bekily area in southern Madagascar. Pink to For this study we selected seven samples, which
pinkish orange Bekily material with variable iron con- ranged from 1.52 to 4.77 ct (see, e.g., figure 1), from
tents but almost no vanadium or chromium has been the parcel of about 30 faceted garnets. Six were
called “malaya” garnet in the trade (Schmetzer et al., brownish purple-red in daylight and represented the
2001). Bekily garnets with variable amounts of vana- majority of the samples. We also studied one
dium and lesser chromium generally show a distinct brownish orange garnet from the same parcel (see
color change between day (or fluorescent) light and box A). From several other parcels totaling more
incandescent light. These color-change pyrope-spes-
sartine garnets have been subdivided into several
groups or types according to the different colors See end of article for About the Authors.
observed under variable illumination (see Schmetzer GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 148–155
and Bernhardt, 1999; Krzemnicki et al., 2001). © 2002 Gemological Institute of America

148 NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002
Figure 1. Chemical analysis of these pyrope-spessartine garnets from Tranoroa, Madagascar—shown
here in fluorescent light (left) and incandescent light (right)—revealed appreciable amounts of Cr and V.
However, they do not show the distinct color change in daylight and incandescent light that is observed
in pyrope-spessartines from the nearby deposit at Bekily. The samples weigh 4.77, 3.26, and 2.81 ct.
Photos by Maha Tannous.

than 400 garnets from Bekily, we chose about 50 Visual Appearance and Gemological Properties. All
Cr- and V-bearing samples for chemical analysis. samples revealed a homogeneous brownish purple-
From these samples, we selected three representa- red color in day or fluorescent light and were pur-
tive stones for comparison of their color appearance
and composition with the Tranoroa garnets.
The seven Tranoroa samples were tested by Figure 2. The garnets described here were mined
standard gemological methods for refractive index, recently near Tranoroa, which is located about 60
fluorescence to long- and short-wave ultraviolet km southwest of the Bekily garnet deposits in
radiation, and specific gravity. We examined the southern Madagascar.
samples for inclusions and internal structural prop-
erties using various microscopes and lighting condi-
tions, both with and without immersion in methy-
lene iodide. In addition, we identified solid inclu-
sions by laser Raman microspectrometry using a
Renishaw 1000 system.
For all these Tranoroa samples, we recorded
spectra in the UV-visible range with a Leitz-Unicam
SP 800 spectrophotometer as well as with an
Adamas Advantage SAS 2000 spectrophotometer.
To determine quantitative chemical composition,
we used a Cameca Camebax SX 50 electron micro-
probe, with traverses of 10 point analyses each,
measured across the tables of the faceted stones.
The same instrument was used to analyze the three
garnets from Bekily.

RESULTS
The results for the six brownish purple-red Trano-
roa samples are listed in table 1 and discussed
below. The results for the three Bekily samples are
included in table 1 for comparison.

NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 149
 BOX A: A CHROMIUM-BEARING SPESSARTINE

Figure A-1. As seen in day or fluorescent light (left) and incandescent light (right), the color appearance of this 2.84 ct Cr-
bearing Tranoroa spessartine (sample G, see table 1) is distinctly different from the 1.03 ct V- and Cr-free Madagascar
spessartine (0.02 wt.% V2O3, 0.02 wt.% Cr2O3 , 39.34 wt.% MnO, and 2.29 wt.% FeO). Photos by Maha Tannous.

Within the parcel of brownish purple-red garnets from undoubtedly associated with its high Cr content. The
Tranoroa, we observed one sample that appeared brown- absorption spectrum (figure A-2) was similar to that of
ish orange in day or fluorescent light and reddish orange the Cr-bearing intermediate pyrope-spessartines from
in incandescent light (figure A-1). Physical and chemical the same area. The spectrum revealed a dominant
properties of this garnet (sample G) are given in table 1. chromium absorption in the yellow region and weak
This garnet showed distinctly higher R.I. and S.G. iron absorption bands. Consistent with the distinctly
values than the other six samples. Microprobe analysis higher Mn content of the sample, the absorption bands
revealed that it was different in composition from the of manganese were stronger, and thus the absorption
other six garnets, with only about 5 mol.% pyrope and minimum in the blue-green to violet range was less
a relatively high spessartine value of just over 88 mol.% pronounced than in the intermediate pyrope-spessar-
(again, see table 1). The almandine content was rather tine samples from Tranoroa. This difference in trans-
small, and chromium (1.01 wt.% Cr2O3) was again parency in the blue-green to violet region is responsible
more abundant than vanadium (0.32 wt.% V2O3). The for the differences in color in daylight and incandescent
sample was inert to long- and short-wave UV radiation. light observed in the two types of Tranoroa garnets.
The color behavior of this sample, as compared to Microscopically, the spessartine sample was free of
that of typical spessartine (again, see figure A-1), was rutile needles or other mineral inclusions. With crossed
polarizers, we observed a mosaic-like pattern that
showed high-order interference colors (figure A-3).
Figure A-2. The absorption bands observed in the The garnet from Tranoroa is, to the best of our
spectrum of the Tranoroa spessartine (sample G) knowledge, the first chromium-bearing spessartine
are consistent with those of Cr-bearing pyrope-
described as a faceted gemstone.
spessartines. The bands are due to chromium,
manganese, and iron (see figure 3 in the main text).

Figure A-3. Microscopic examination of the

Tranoroa spessartine revealed high-order interfer-
ence colors in an irregular mosaic-like structure and
strain pattern. Photomicrograph by K. Schmetzer;
immersion, crossed polarizers, magnified 40´.

150 NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002
plish red in incandescent light (again, see figure 1). spessartine solid-solution series. These R.I. and S.G.
Refractive indices for the six samples were found to values are within the ranges found for malaya gar-
vary within a small range, from 1.768 to 1.773 (table nets from the same region, although they are higher
1). Likewise, the specific gravity values fell between than the average values recorded for the samples
3.95 and 3.97, which indicates a narrow range of described in Schmetzer et al. (2001). All garnets were
chemical composition within the pyrope-almandine- inert to both long- and short-wave UV radiation.

TABLE 1. Physical and chemical properties of pyrope-spessartine garnets from Tranoroa and Bekily, Madagascar.

Tranoroa Bekily

Property A B C D E F G X Y Z

Weight (ct) 4.77 1.86 3.26 2.81 2.02 1.52 2.84 0.67 0.90 0.78
Color
Day or Brownish purple-red Brownish Grayish Slightly Bluish
fluorescent light orange green reddish green-
purple gray
Incandescent Purplish red Reddish Grayish Strongly Pinkish
light orange purple reddish purple
purple
Refractive index 1.768 1.768 1.769 1.770 1.770 1.773 1.808 1.750 1.752 1.755
Specific gravity 3.95 3.96 3.95 3.96 3.97 3.97 4.15 3.82 3.83 3.86
Microprobe
analyses (wt.%)a
SiO2 38.70 37.67 38.82 38.41 37.91 37.88 35.81 40.62 40.83 39.66
TiO2 0.05 0.08 0.04 0.07 0.12 0.16 0.33 0.05 0.07 0.05
Al2O3 21.98 21.75 22.00 21.69 21.46 21.33 20.24 22.92 22.91 22.50
Cr2O3 0.67 0.69 0.68 0.71 0.75 0.75 1.01 0.11 0.53 0.15
V2O3 0.38 0.41 0.35 0.43 0.51 0.58 0.32 0.58 0.56 0.67
FeOb 2.57 2.60 2.55 2.54 2.67 2.32 1.13 1.50 3.69 1.71
MnO 23.60 23.41 23.44 23.68 24.02 25.00 37.80 15.52 14.27 16.98
MgO 10.25 10.26 10.24 9.90 9.68 8.40 1.59 14.18 16.10 14.07
CaO 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.60 1.62 2.50 0.80 5.09 2.02 3.40
Total 99.62 98.29 99.55 99.03 98.72 98.94 99.04 100.56 100.98 99.19

Cationsc
Si 2.967 2.934 2.975 2.968 2.951 2.959 2.950 2.979 2.972 2.965
Ti 0.003 0.004 0.002 0.004 0.007 0.009 0.020 0.003 0.004 0.003
Al 1.986 1.997 1.987 1.976 1.969 1.964 1.965 1.981 1.965 1.982
Cr 0.041 0.043 0.041 0.043 0.046 0.046 0.066 0.006 0.031 0.009
V 0.023 0.026 0.022 0.027 0.032 0.037 0.021 0.034 0.033 0.040
Fe 0.165 0.170 0.163 0.190 0.174 0.152 0.078 0.092 0.224 0.107
Mn 1.532 1.544 1.522 1.550 1.583 1.654 2.637 0.964 0.879 1.075
Mg 1.172 1.195 1.170 1.140 1.123 0.978 0.195 1.551 1.746 1.568
Ca 0.117 0.119 0.177 0.133 0.135 0.209 0.017 0.400 0.157 0.272

Mol.% end-members
Pyrope 39.35 39.46 39.37 37.84 37.35 32.68 4.68 51.58 58.08 51.89
Spessartine 51.31 50.99 51.04 51.44 52.50 55.26 88.46 32.06 29.24 35.57
Almandine 5.53 5.61 5.48 6.31 5.77 5.08 2.62 3.06 7.45 3.54
Grossular 0.80 0.59 0.87 0.99 0.67 2.92 — 11.32 2.06 6.59
Goldmanite 1.12 1.26 1.07 1.32 1.56 1.81 1.02 1.68 1.63 1.99
Uvarovite 2.00 2.08 2.00 2.10 2.25 2.25 1.36 0.30 1.53 0.42
Knorringite — — — — — — 1.86d — — —
a Average composition of 10 analyses each; all samples were relatively homogeneous in composition.
b Total iron as FeO.
c Calculated on the basis of 12 oxygens.
d Because CaO was smaller than necessary to account for all the chromium and vanadium as uvarovite and goldmanite, the residual
chromium in this
sample was assigned to the Mg-Cr end member, knorringite [Mg3Cr2(SiO4 )3 ].

NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 151
 Figure 4. This pyrope-spessartine shows anomalous
double refraction and strain parallel to growth
Figure 3. This absorption spectrum of a representa- planes that were determined as the trapezohedron
tive brownish purple-red garnet from Tranoroa {211}. Photomicrograph by K. Schmetzer; immer-
(sample E) shows features that are consistent with sion, crossed polarizers, magnified 20´.
a chromium-bearing intermediate pyrope-spessar-
tine. The bands labeled are due to Cr 3+ (571, 688
nm), V 3+ (571 nm), Mn 2+ (459, 483, 525 nm), and
Fe 2+ (459, 503, 525 nm). position with 12 oxygens suggested that Fe3+ is
either not present or present in only a very small
amount (<0.01 Fe3+ atoms per formula unit). This
Chemical Properties. The garnets were members indicates little or no andradite component in the
of the pyrope-almandine-spessartine solid-solution samples.
series, with 33 – 39 mol.% pyrope and 51 – 55 In summary, all samples contained more
mol.% spessartine (table 1). Almandine percent- chromium than vanadium. They were intermediate
ages varied only between 5 and 7 mol.% for these pyrope-spessartine garnets with greater amounts of
six samples, with smaller percentages of grossular spessartine than pyrope.
(0.6 – 3 mol.%). All samples contained more
chromium than vanadium: 0.67–0.75 wt.% Cr2O3 Spectroscopic Properties. The absorption spectra of
(~2 mol.% uvarovite) and 0.35–0.58 wt.% V2O3 all six samples consisted of a strong broad absorp-
(1–2 mol.% goldmanite). tion band centered at 571 nm; weak bands at 459,
Calculations of Fe2+ and Fe3+ for a garnet com- 483, 503, 525, and 688 nm; and an absorption edge

Figure 5. In two of the Tranoroa pyrope-spessartine garnets, growth planes were seen to form angles
of 132° (left) or 147° (right), which are typical for the trapezohedron {211} in the cubic system. Both
photomicrographs taken with immersion, magnified 50´. The inset shows an idealized drawing
(clinographic projection) of a crystal composed of {211} faces.

152 NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002
Figure 6. All of the pyrope-spessartine study sam- Figure 7. As with the Bekily garnets examined ear-
ples revealed dense, three-dimensional networks lier, some of the Tranoroa pyrope-spessartines also
of oriented rutile needles. Photomicrograph by contained tabular graphite crystals. Photomicro-
K. Schmetzer; immersion, crossed polarizers, graph by L. Kiefert; magnified 100´.
magnified 40´.

near 440 nm with an almost continuous strong hedron {110}). Two of these garnets also showed a
absorption below 440 nm (figure 3). swirl-like pattern of growth inhomogeneities.
Also as described and illustrated in Schmetzer
Features Observed with the Microscope. As illus- et al. (2001) for Bekily garnets, all six Tranoroa
trated and described for the non-color-change samples revealed a three-dimensional network of
pyrope-spessartines from Bekily (Schmetzer et al., oriented rutile needles (figure 6), and some con-
2001), all of the Tranoroa samples revealed strong tained numerous other inclusions, which were
anomalous double refraction (ADR) when exam- identified by laser Raman microspectrometry:
ined with crossed polarizers (figure 4). In two sam- irregularly shaped graphite platelets (figure 7) and
ples, this ADR was also seen parallel to growth fragments of quartz crystals; negative crystals
planes of the trapezohedron {211}, which forms reflecting the external garnet morphology (figure 8);
pairs of faces with two characteristic angles of 132° prismatic apatite crystals, sometimes with slightly
and 147° (figure 5). The trapezohedron (figure 5, rounded edges; and small zircon crystals with ten-
inset) is one of the two most common forms sion cracks. In one of the garnets, we found an
observed in garnet crystals (the other is the dodeca- irregularly shaped monazite crystal (figure 9).

Figure 8. This negative crystal in a pyrope-spessar-

tine represents the garnet morphology. The faces Figure 9. One of the garnet samples contained this
are probably also the trapezohedron {211}. irregularly shaped monazite crystal. Photomicro-
Photomicrograph by L. Kiefert; magnified 200´. graph by L. Kiefert; magnified 100´.

NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 153
Figure 10. Chemical differences (table 1) are responsible for the different colors shown by the pyrope-
spessartines from Tranoroa as compared to pyrope-spessartines from Bekily in day or fluorescent light
(left) and incandescent light (right). From left to right: sample E, 2.02 ct from Tranoroa, with Cr>V; sam-
ple X, 0.67 ct from Bekily, with V>Cr; sample Y, 0.90 ct from Bekily, with V~Cr; and sample Z, 0.78 ct
from Bekily, with V>Cr. Photos by Maha Tannous.

DISCUSSION change” terminology is not well defined and will be

Absorption Spectra. The strong band at 571 nm in the interpreted differently by different viewers and orga-
absorption spectra of the Tranoroa samples is nizations. Because the Tranoroa samples showed a
assigned to Cr3+, because a Cr3+ absorption band in an distinct change in color appearance but not from one
almost identical position has been reported in pyropes hue to another, we are not referring to them as
with high chromium contents (Amthauer, 1976). A “color change” in this article. Some laboratories and
chromium absorption maximum at this wavelength other members of the trade might describe these
also has been found in alexandrite-like intermediate samples as showing a “color shift.”) Color-change
pyrope-spessartine garnets with higher Cr than V con- garnets with more Cr than V have been known from
tents (Schmetzer and Ottemann, 1979; Schmetzer et Tanzania and Sri Lanka for decades (Schmetzer and
al., 1980). In the latter type of garnet, however, the Ottemann, 1979; Schmetzer et al., 1980; Stockton,
V3+ absorption band is located in the same spectral 1982; Manson and Stockton, 1984). However, the
range (Schmetzer and Ottemann, 1979; Manson and color-change pyrope-spessartines examined to date
Stockton, 1984; Schmetzer and Bernhardt, 1999; from Bekily, Madagascar, typically contain more
Krzemnicki et al., 2001). As a result of this overlap, vanadium than chromium (Schmetzer and
the absorption bands of chromium and vanadium Bernhardt, 1999; Krzemnicki et al., 2001; see also fig-
cannot be separated in intermediate pyrope-spessar- ure 10 and table 1). Only six of the 50 color-change
tine garnets. Rather, they have a combined effect that Bekily samples analyzed had almost the same
strengthens the absorption in this region of the spec- amount of vanadium as chromium (again see, figure
trum. The weak absorption band at 688 nm is also 10 and table 1).
caused by Cr3+ and is commonly observed in various Color change in pyrope-spessartine garnets is a
Cr-bearing garnets (Amthauer, 1976). complex function of the relative amounts of color-
The four remaining absorption bands are assigned causing transition metals (i.e., V, Cr, Mn, and Fe).
to Fe2+ and/or Mn2+ as follows: 459 nm = Fe + Mn, Colorimetric data have been applied to explain the
483 nm = Mn, 503 nm = Fe, and 525 nm = Fe + Mn. various changes in color appearance in different
A detailed discussion of this assignment appears in lighting environments for garnets and other gem
Schmetzer et al. (2001). The almost continuous materials (Schmetzer et al., 1980; Liu et al., 1999;
absorption below 440 nm is caused by several man- Krzemnicki et al., 2001). The Tranoroa samples
ganese absorption bands. have absorption characteristics that are similar to
the V>Cr-bearing color-change garnets from Bekily,
Chemical Composition and Color Appearance. The which have an absorption maximum in the yellow
brownish purple-red garnets from Tranoroa are inter- region at 571 nm and two areas of transparency in
mediate members of the pyrope-spessartine series. the red and in the blue-green to violet regions (see
All samples contained greater amounts of chromium Schmetzer and Bernhardt, 1999). However, in the
than vanadium. Although the Tranoroa garnets did Cr>V-bearing samples from Tranoroa, the trans-
show a perceptible difference in appearance between parency in the blue-green to violet region is dis-
daylight and incandescent light, these samples did tinctly smaller. This gives rise to the difference in
not show the distinct change in hue seen in the color behavior of the Cr- and V-bearing garnets
Bekily color-change garnets. (Note that “color from Bekily and Tranoroa. It is evident that an

154 NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002
increase in manganese in intermediate pyrope-spes- Garnets from both Tranoroa and Bekily formed in
sartine garnets causes an increase in the intensity high-grade metamorphic Precambrian rocks.
of the manganese absorption bands and a reduction Differences in the composition of the host rocks are
in transparency in the blue-green to violet spectral the most likely source of variations in the chemical
range (again, see figure 3), thus decreasing the blue properties and color appearance of these garnets.
color component and increasing the orange.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

CONCLUSION
Dr. Schmetzer (SchmetzerKarl@hotmail.com) is a
The new pyrope-spessartine garnets from Tranoroa research scientist residing in Petershausen, near
have a brownish purple-red color not seen thus far in Munich, Germany. Mr. Hainschwang is a gemologist
and director at the GEMLAB gemological laboratory
the nearby Bekily material. Despite their appreciable in Ruggell, Principality of Liechtenstein. Dr. Bernhardt
Cr and V contents, they do not show the distinct is head of the central electron microprobe facility at
color change from daylight to incandescent light Ruhr-University, Bochum, Germany. Dr. Kiefert is a
research scientist and director of the colored stone
observed in the Bekily material. This is mainly due department at the SSEF Swiss Gemmological
to their relatively high Mn contents, which reduce Institute, Basel, Switzerland.
their transparency in the blue-green to violet range.

REFERENCES
Amthauer G. (1976) Kristallchemie und Farbe chromhaltiger Schmetzer K., Ottemann J. (1979) Kristallchemie und Farbe
Granate. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie Abhandlungen, Vanadium-haltiger Granate. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie
Vol. 126, No. 2, pp. 158–186. Abhandlungen, Vol. 136, No. 2, pp. 146–168.
Krzemnicki M.S., Hänni H.A., Reusser E. (2001) Colour-change Schmetzer K., Bank H., Gübelin E. (1980) The alexandrite effect
garnets from Madagascar: Comparison of colorimetric with in minerals: Chrysoberyl, garnet, corundum, fluorite. Neues
chemical data. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 27, No. 7, pp. Jahrbuch für Mineralogie Abhandlungen, Vol. 138, No. 2, pp.
395–408. 147–164.
Liu Y., Shigley J.E., Fritsch E., Hemphill S. (1999) A colorimetric Schmetzer K., Hainschwang T., Kiefert L., Bernhardt H.-J. (2001)
study of the alexandrite effect in gemstones. Journal of Pink to pinkish orange malaya garnets from Bekily,
Gemmology, Vol. 26, No. 6, pp. 371–385. Madagascar. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 37, No. 4, pp. 296–308.
Manson D.V., Stockton C.M. (1984) Pyrope-spessartine garnets Stockton C.M. (1982) Two notable color-change garnets. Gems
with unusual color behavior. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 20, & Gemology, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 100–101.
No. 4, pp. 200–207. Windley B.F., Razafiniparany A., Razakamanana T., Ackermand
Schmetzer K., Bernhardt H.-J. (1999) Garnets from Madagascar D. (1994) Tectonic framework of the Precambrian of
with a color change of blue-green to purple. Gems & Madagascar and its Gondwana connections: A review and
Gemology, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 196–201. reappraisal. Geologische Rundschau, Vol. 83, pp. 642–659.

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NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 155
 UPDATE ON THE IDENTIFICATION
OF TREATED “GOLDEN”
SOUTH SEA CULTURED PEARLS
By Shane Elen

to determine the identifying characteristics of this

Most of the “golden” South Sea cultured pearls in a treatment method. Particular attention was paid to
single strand were found to exhibit unusual brownish spectra in the UV-visible range.
orange fluorescence to long-wave UV radiation and
atypical absorption features at 405 nm and 558 nm.
On the basis of these features and visual examination, BACKGROUND
33 of the 35 cultured pearls were identified as color Recently, UV-Vis reflectance spectroscopy was used
treated. This study demonstrates how atypical absorp- to help distinguish natural-color “golden” cultured
tion features, particularly in the blue region of the
pearls from those reportedly treated using heat (Elen,
spectrum, can be used to positively identify color treat-
2001). The application of this “heat” treatment
ment, even in the presence of the 330–385 nm UV
absorption feature characteristic of natural-color “gold- method to undrilled pearls was unlike the more com-
en” pearls from the Pinctada maxima mollusk. mon dyeing method encountered by gemologists,
which typically is applied after drilling, often result-
ing in a characteristic concentration of color in the
drill hole. Evidence of the “heat” treatment method

T he identification of treated “golden” South

Sea cultured pearls has relied primarily on
observations made with the gemological
microscope. Unusual fluorescence to long-wave
in undrilled pearls occasionally could be detected by
observing an unusual color concentration in surface
defects, or was indicated by the atypical fluorescence.
However, testing of known natural-color samples
ultraviolet radiation often has been used as support- has revealed that both yellow shell nacre and natu-
ing evidence. When present, color concentrations in ral-color “golden” cultured pearls from the Pinctada
nacre defects or around drill holes can be used to maxima mollusk exhibit broad absorption from 330
positively identify treated color. Ongoing investiga- to 460 nm (Elen, 2001). This absorption was found to
tion at GIA Research has shown that some types of consist of two features, one in the UV region from
color treatment might be identified by the presence 330 to 385 nm and a weaker one in the blue region
of atypical absorption features in the visible region of the visible spectrum from 385 to 460 nm. Closer
of the reflectance spectrum. examination of these features showed absorption
The present study centers on the examination maxima between 350 and 365 nm and from 420 to
of a strand of 35 “golden” South Sea cultured pearls 435 nm. The strength of both these absorption fea-
(11–14 mm in diameter) that were submitted to the tures increased with increasing saturation of the yel-
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory for an identification
report earlier this year. The pearls exhibited quite
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
uniform yellow coloration (figure 1), but standard Shane Elen is a research gemologist at GIA Research in Carlsbad, California.
gemological testing revealed evidence of treatment. See end of article for Acknowledgments.
In keeping with our pearl research program, these GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 156–159
cultured pearls were examined further in an attempt © 2002 Gemological Institute of America

156 NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002
 Figure 1. This strand of
loosely strung, predom-
inantly treated-color
“golden” South Sea
cultured pearls (11 to
14 mm in diameter)
was characterized in
this study. Photo by
Maha Tannous.

low color (figure 2). It was concluded that the RESULTS

absence of the UV absorption feature in “golden” Visual Appearance. All 35 cultured pearls in the
cultured pearls indicated treated color, regardless of strand were yellow with uniform color distribution
the treatment method used. However, given that and exhibited a good color match to one another
numerous chemicals and dyes are available to pro- (again, see figure 1).
duce yellow coloration (see Green, 1990), it also was For those cultured pearls that were loose on the
noted that the presence of the absorption features in strand, microscopic examination with fiber-optic
the UV and blue regions of the spectrum could not lighting revealed an unusual color distribution
be used with certainty to indicate natural color. This within the drill holes of the vast majority of the
article demonstrates how atypical absorption fea- samples (figure 3). The color appeared to be more
tures in these regions extend the application of UV- saturated at the surface of the nacre and to decrease
Vis spectroscopy for the identification of treated in intensity with depth into the drill hole.
“golden” South Sea cultured pearls. In reflected light, faint color concentrations were
noted in small surface defects on several of the cul-
tured pearls, and these were accompanied by a
MATERIALS AND METHODS “blotchy” appearance of the color when observed in
All 35 cultured pearls in the strand were examined transmitted light. Two of the cultured pearls revealed
with a standard gemological microscope equipped an orange residue around their drill holes, and
with fiber-optic lighting. Although it is difficult to another revealed an orange residue concentrated in
inspect the drill holes of a knotted strand of cul- a large pit adjacent to the drill hole.
tured pearls for evidence of color concentrations,
this particular strand was strung temporarily, so rel- Fluorescence and UV-Vis Reflectance Spectra.
atively few (four) of the cultured pearls were knot- Twenty-seven of the 35 cultured pearls revealed
ted tightly in place. Therefore, the others could be brownish orange fluorescence to long-wave UV radia-
separated easily for inspection of the drill holes. tion. All of these samples also showed a distinct
The fluorescence reaction was tested in a dark- absorption feature at 405 nm and a weaker one at 558
ened room using a UVP model B100 AP long-wave nm (figure 4). The strength of the absorption at 558
UV lamp. UV-Vis reflectance spectra were obtained nm appeared proportional to the absorption at 405
for all 35 samples with a Hitachi 4001 UV-Vis spec- nm. Six other samples showed greenish orangy yellow
trophotometer. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluores- fluorescence and revealed only a weak 405 nm absorp-
cence (EDXRF) analysis was performed with a tion feature. The remaining two samples exhibited
Thermo Noran Spectrace 5000 EDXRF spectrome- greenish yellow fluorescence and absorption in the
ter for four samples chosen on the basis of their blue region centered at 430 nm (figure 4), which are
reaction to long-wave UV: two that exhibited strong both characteristic of “golden” cultured pearls from P.
brownish orange fluorescence and two that dis- maxima. No color concentrations were evident in the
played greenish yellow fluorescence. drill holes of these two samples.

NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 157
 All 35 samples exhibited absorption between
355 and 365 nm in the UV region of the spectrum;
in all but 10 of the samples, the UV absorption was
stronger than the absorption in the blue region. Of
the exceptions, six exhibited strong brownish
orange fluorescence and the remaining four fluo-
resced brownish orange with moderate intensity. In
addition, six other samples showed noticeably patchy
fluorescence in which different areas exhibited dis-
tinct regions of greenish orangy yellow and brown-
ish orange fluorescence. Figure 3. In many of the cultured pearls, the color
appeared to be concentrated near the surface when
viewed down the drill hole. Such concentrations of
EDXRF Chemical Analysis. EDXRF analysis
color in pearls are good indicators of treatment.
revealed the presence of calcium, strontium, and Photomicrograph by John Koivula; magnified 5´.
sulfur in all four samples tested.

DISCUSSION requires both experience and the appropriate light-

In our experience, the relatively saturated color at the ing environment (such as the proper orientation of
surface of the nacre, which gradually became lighter the fiber-optic light for examination of the drill
as one looked deeper into the drill hole, suggests that hole, and a dark room for fluorescence testing). In
the cultured pearls exhibiting this feature were color some cases, these observations can be quite diffi-
treated prior to drilling. Had color treatment been cult to interpret and are thus subjective criteria. In
applied after drilling, it most likely would appear to other cases, such as cultured pearls that are
color the nacre uniformly within the drill hole, or to undrilled, post mounted, or tightly strung, it may
be concentrated at the conchiolin layer between the not be possible to inspect inside the drill hole. In all
nucleus and the nacre (Gauthier and Lasnier, 1990). these situations, UV-Vis reflectance spectroscopy is
Although the observation of both a color con- especially important because it provides objective
centration inside the drill hole and unusual fluores- data in the form of a spectrum. Often, color treat-
cence often can indicate color treatment, detection ment can be identified conclusively only by com-

Figure 2. These reflectance spectra of six light yellow Figure 4. These reflectance spectra represent the three
to orangy yellow cultured pearls from the P. maxima types of “golden” cultured pearls on the strand exam-
oyster show absorption features that are characteristic ined: (A) untreated, with typical greenish yellow fluo-
of natural color. These features are located in the UV rescence; (B) treated, with slightly brownish orange
region between 350 and 365 nm, and in the blue fluorescence; and (C) treated, with strong brownish
region from 420 to 435 nm. Adapted from Elen (2001). orange fluorescence.

158 NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002
paring the data from a variety of these tests. by this technique, and sodium (a relatively light ele-
For all the cultured pearls in the strand exam- ment) can only be detected when present in high
ined for this study, the absorption from 355 to 365 concentration; no sodium was detected in the four
nm was similar to that observed in the UV region of samples analyzed. This suggests that the treatment
natural-color “golden” cultured pearls (Elen, 2001). involved the use of organic chemicals or dyes, or
However, 10 of the samples exhibited stronger inorganic chemicals composed of light elements
absorption in the blue than in the UV region, which such as sodium salts.
is not characteristic of natural yellow color in P.
maxima (again, see figure 3). In these 10 samples,
the brownish orange fluorescence was generally CONCLUSION
quite strong. However, there was not a consistent All but two of the cultured pearls tested in this
correlation between the strength of the 405 nm study were found to have been color treated prior to
absorption and the intensity of the brownish orange drilling. However, the treatment process used for
fluorescence. Nevertheless, all 33 samples that these pearls appears to be different from the “heat”
showed either the unusual brownish orange or treatment method reported in an earlier study (see
greenish orangy yellow fluorescence also had an Elen, 2001). Evidence of treatment consisted of a
absorption feature at 405 nm. This, in conjunction surface color concentration noted in the drill hole,
with the color concentration, indicates that this par- color concentrations in nacre defects, unusual
ticular color treatment uses a chemical or dye in brownish orange fluorescence to long-wave UV radi-
which absorption in the blue region at 405 nm is ation, and the presence of atypical (for natural-color
responsible for the yellow coloration. Absorption at “golden” cultured pearls) absorption features at 405
405 nm and 558 nm, and the brownish orange fluo- and 558 nm in the UV-Vis reflectance spectrum.
rescence, are not characteristic of natural-color In the absence of conclusive visual indicators, a
“golden” cultured pearls from the gold-lipped oyster variety of treatment methods for producing “gold-
P. maxima (Elen, 2001). en” color in South Sea cultured pearls may be
Different yellow dyes and chemicals may have detected by atypical absorption features in the visi-
distinctly different absorption features in the blue ble region of their reflectance spectrum. When sev-
region of the visible spectrum (e.g., Thiazol Yellow eral cultured pearls on a strand exhibit matching
G and Mordant Yellow 12 [Green, 1990]). They also absorption features, particularly in the blue region
may exhibit additional absorption features in the of the spectrum, and these are not typical of natu-
UV as well as other regions of the spectrum (Green, ral-color “golden” cultured pearls, then treatment is
1990). When present, these absorption features can indicated for those samples. However, as more data
be used to identify color treatment. are obtained on natural-color “golden” cultured
No difference was observed in the EDXRF analy- pearls, it is likely that we will see an occasional
ses for the treated samples compared to those of anomalous absorption feature. Therefore, the detec-
natural-color cultured pearls tested previously (see tion of unusual absorption features in a single cul-
Elen, 2001). Organic compounds cannot be detected tured pearl should be evaluated with caution.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The author thanks the following per- of D’Elia & Tasaki Co., New York; Nicholas Paspaley of
sons for providing samples of natural-color “golden” South Paspaley Pearling Co., Darwin, Australia; and David Norman
Sea cultured pearls and shells used as reference material for of Broome Pearls Pty, Broome, Western Australia. Thanks
this study: Alex Vock of ProVocative Gems, New York; also to Cheryl Wentzell of the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory for
Jacques Branellec of Jewelmer International, the Philippines; demonstrating an effective method for detecting color treat-
Salvador Assael of Assael International, New York; Terry D’Elia ment using the microscope and fiber-optic light.

REFERENCES
Elen S. (2001) Spectral reflectance and fluorescence characteris- ment á l’argent. Revue de Gemmologie a.f.g., No. 103, pp.
tics of natural-color and heat-treated “golden” South Sea cul- 3–6.
tured pearls. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 114–123. Green F.J. (1990) The Sigma-Aldrich Handbook of Stains, Dyes
Gauthier J-P., Lasnier B. (1990) La perle noire obtenue par traite- and Indicators. Aldrich Chemical Co., Milwaukee, WI.

NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 159
Gem Trade LAB NOTES
Editors
Thomas M. Moses, Ilene Reinitz,
Shane F. McClure, and Mary L. Johnson
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory

Contributing Editors
G. Robert Crowningshield
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, East Coast
Karin N. Hurwit, John I. Koivula, and
Cheryl Y. Wentzell
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, West Coast

AURICHALCITE The central cabochon had a very that the material was a carbonate.
distinctive appearance: semi-translu- Gemological testing was limited
Occasionally we receive items for cent to opaque with a fibrous botry- because the stone was mounted and
identification that none of our staff oidal structure that was somewhat mostly opaque. Aggregate carbonates
members can recall ever seeing in the reminiscent of malachite. The bright can be difficult to identify in any
lab. Such was the case with a combi- greenish blue color was typical of case, so more-advanced testing was
nation pendant and brooch that had a minerals that are colored by traces of necessary.
banded white and greenish blue oval copper. We obtained spot R.I. readings Energy-dispersive X-ray fluores-
cabochon mounted as the center of 1.63–1.75, which exhibited what is cence (EDXRF) spectroscopy revealed
stone. The 29.50 ¥ 18.10 mm cabo- known as a “carbonate blink” on the mostly zinc and copper, with a trace
chon was set in yellow metal and sur- refractometer. The stone effervesced amount of lead (carbon and oxygen
rounded by square and round cabo- to a small drop of dilute HCl acid are below the detection limits of
chon-cut blue moonstones (figure 1). applied to the back, which proved this instrument). X-ray diffraction
analysis produced a pattern that
closely matched both aurichalcite
Figure 1. Advanced testing proved that the unusual center stone (29.50 [(Zn,Cu) 5(CO 3) 2(OH) 6] and hydro-
¥ 18.10 mm) in this combination brooch and pendant was aurichalcite. zincite [Zn5(CO3)2(OH)6]. The rela-
tively high copper content of this
cabochon proved that the material
was aurichalcite.
This is indeed the first example
of aurichalcite set in jewelry that we
can recall seeing in the laboratory.
Aurichalcite is quite soft (1–2 on the
Mohs scale) and somewhat fragile.
This was illustrated by the fact that
the cabochon had been repaired; that
is, a small piece on the top had been
reattached with glue. SFM

Editor’s note: The initials at the end of each item

identify the editor(s) or contributing editor(s)
who provided that item. Full names are given for
other GIA Gem Trade Laboratory contributors.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 161–168
© 2002 Gemological Institute of America

GEM TRADE LAB NOTES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 161
 at 10,126 cm-1 (approximately 987
nm) in the near-infrared spectrum is
indicative of similarly annealed type I
diamonds, as are the graphitized
“feathers” seen with a gemological
microscope. Some variations were
also observed in the mid-infrared
range.
According to Dr. Frushour, the
normal annealing temperature used at
their facility is generally above
1800°C, with pressure in the range of
5 to 6 GPa. The diamonds annealed
Figure 2. After HPHT treatment, this type Ia diamond (1.07 ct) changed range from under 1 ct to over 10 ct.
from brown to green-yellow. Phoenix Crystal Corp. is not market-
ing diamonds processed at its facility,
but is offering the HPHT service to
the trade. We do not know the exact
orized brown type IIa diamonds and
DIAMOND number of commercial HPHT anneal-
produced a range of colors in type I
Another Commercial U.S. Facility ing facilities in the U.S., but we sus-
diamonds. Figure 2 shows a 1.07 ct
Offers HPHT Annealing pect that it is very small.
type Ia diamond before and after
Wuyi Wang
It recently came to our attention that HPHT annealing at this facility.
another U.S. facility is offering high- Similar to other samples with compa-
pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) rable properties, this one illustrates
annealing of diamonds to improve the predictable color enhancement Challenges in Recognizing a
their color. Phoenix Crystal Corp. of from brown to green-yellow (see, e.g., Color Attribute’s Effect on
Ann Arbor, Michigan, an industrial I. M. Reinitz et al., “Identification of Color Grading Fancy Colors
supplier of diamond abrasives and HPHT-treated yellow to green dia- GIA fancy grades for colored dia-
cutting tools, is commercially treat- monds,” Summer 2000 Gems & monds represent a range of appear-
ing gem diamonds using a standard Gemology, pp. 128–137). Figure 3 ances based on the combination of a
belt-type press. shows the mid- and near-infrared color’s attributes (hue, tone, and satu-
Dr. Robert Frushour, president of absorption spectra of the 1.07 ct dia- ration). If a diamond is located near
Phoenix Crystal Corp., has informed mond before and after treatment. The the boundary of its grade range, sub-
us that his facility has both decol- presence of the H2 absorption feature tle differences between it and another

Figure 3. Absorption spectra in the near- and mid-infrared range of the diamond shown in figure 2, before
and after treatment, provide evidence of HPHT annealing.

162 GEM TRADE LAB NOTES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002
 Diamond “Pearl” Necklace
The 1990s saw increasing interest in
antique-cut diamonds such as brio-
lettes, rondelles, and rose, old
European and old mine cuts. Due to
their old-fashioned look, diamond
beads have also enjoyed a dramatic
rise in popularity, even though they
are “without historic precedent” (E.
Misiorowski, “Jewelry of the 1990s,”
Winter 2000 Gems & Gemology, pp.
398–417).
It was, therefore, not surprising
last spring when the East Coast lab
received a double-strand necklace of
Figure 4. These three diamonds (1.03–2.80 ct) are in the same hue range diamond “pearls” for determination
and of approximately the same saturation. The differences in appear- of color origin (see figure 5). These
ance are due to variations in tone (i.e., relative lightness or darkness), spherical diamond beads, first seen by
all of which are within the range that would be described in GIA’s col- one of our staff members as a com-
ored diamond color grading system as Fancy Vivid yellow-orange. mercial product at the 1997 Tucson
gem shows, owe their shape to a com-
bination of physical and chemical
diamond in one or more of these tematic approach, using references of processes. Ground to rough rounds,
attributes can result in different known location in color space (such they acquire their shiny polish by
grades. For example, in this section of as diamonds with established loca- selective dissolution as they “cook”
the last issue (Spring 2002 GTLN, p. tions in grade ranges), and they in sodium carbonate in an inert atmo-
80), we reported on two blue dia- require a familiarity with the way sphere at approximately 800°C
monds that had such a result based colors change with different (“Diamond ‘pearls’,” Spring 1997
on their difference in tone (lightness attributes that can only be attained Gem News, pp. 60–61).
to darkness). However, there are also by observing considerable numbers The two strands consisted of
situations in which recognizable dif- and varieties of colored diamonds. numerous variously colored round dia-
ferences in an attribute may not A group of colored diamonds mond beads graduated in size from
affect the grade because the different recently submitted to the East Coast approximately 1.75 to 10.00 mm. The
appearances occur within the estab- laboratory highlights the challenges client had requested that we test the
lished range (i.e., if the range of differ- of identifying the cause of appear- origin for each color represented in the
ences does not cross a boundary, the ance differences without a consis- necklace. As a result, we randomly
grade will be the same). tent approach and awareness of how selected and tested a total of five beads:
Even in situations where a grade colors change. The three diamonds yellow, dark gray, reddish brown,
is not affected, understanding which in figure 4 appear slightly different black, and near colorless. These sam-
attribute is causing an appearance in hue and saturation, which could ple beads ranged in diaphaneity from
difference is important because it is lead one to believe they are of differ- transparent to opaque. All had refrac-
not uncommon for a difference in ent fancy grades and hues. When tive indices that were over-the-limit
one attribute to be confused with observed under controlled condi- (OTL) of the standard refractometer
that in another. As a result, some tions with known references, how- and had a hardness greater than 9 on
observers interpret differences in an ever, all were found to be in the the Mohs scale. Only the transparent,
attribute, such as tone, as a differ- same hue range and of the same near-colorless bead showed a spectrum
ence in saturation or hue. If, for approximate saturation. The per- with the desk-model spectroscope—a
example, two diamonds of different ceived differences are due to differ- 415 nm line.
tone were both Fancy yellow and the ences in tone within an area of the The dark gray and black beads
difference was confused with satura- GIA color space that does not cross a were inert to both long- and short-
tion, they might be thought of as grade or hue boundary. In this case, wave UV. The yellow bead fluoresced
Fancy and Fancy Intense; if hue, the all three diamonds received the weak orange to long-wave and very
perception might be yellow and same color grade and description: weak orange to short-wave UV. The
orangy yellow. Consistent evalua- Fancy Vivid yellow-orange. reddish brown bead fluoresced patchy
tions are very difficult without a sys- John M. King medium-to-strong blue to long-wave

GEM TRADE LAB NOTES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 163
 Internal Laser Drilling Update
In the Summer 2000 issue of Gems &
Gemology, S. McClure et al. docu-
mented a new laser treatment (“A
new lasering technique for diamond,”
pp. 138–146). The purpose of this
treatment, as with typical laser drill
holes, is to provide a path for acid
solutions to bleach dark, totally inter-
nal inclusions. By focusing a laser
beam on or near such an inclusion,
the technician creates feathers (cleav-
ages) or enlarges existing ones so that
they extend to the surface of the
faceted diamond. Within the feathers
one can see irregular lines or channels
that have been left behind by the
laser. These channels are typically
black or white (figure 6), with a sug-
ary or frosted appearance. Occasion-
ally, we see larger areas that contain
numerous small feathers in a step-
like progression to the surface. These
also may have a white, sugary look
(figure 7). In all three of these exam-
ples, the treatment is fairly obvious
when the diamond is examined with
magnification.
Figure 5. This double-strand necklace of graduated diamond “pearls” Since the 2000 article, we have
was sent to the East Coast lab for determination of color origin. The seen many variations in the appear-
beads ranged from approximately 1.75 to 10.00 mm. ance of this internal laser drilling.

and patchy medium orangy yellow to Figure 6. Laser drilling channels typically are black or white. Left—a nest
short-wave UV. Blue fluorescence was of black channels in the center of the image is surrounded by a barely visi-
seen in the near-colorless bead in ble transparent feather, also created by the laser. Right—the white chan-
medium and weak strengths with nels may appear sugary or frosted. Magnified 63¥ and 45¥, respectively.
long- and short-wave UV, respectively.
Magnification, with the help of fiber-
optic lighting, revealed numerous
feathers and fractures in each bead.
The dark gray bead also contained
many whitish clouds of pinpoint
inclusions. The reddish brown bead
owed its color to orangy red iron stain-
ing in many of its surface-reaching
fractures. The black bead contained
numerous dark crystals and pinpoints.
In summary, standard gemological
testing revealed a combination of
properties and features that both
proved the identity of the beads as
diamond and confirmed that the col-
ors in all five beads were of natural
origin. Wendi Mayerson

164 GEM TRADE LAB NOTES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002
 Recently, in our laboratories on both
coasts, we have encountered a num-
ber of feathers that have small, white,
disk-like areas with irregular outlines
and a sugary texture, rather than the
channels described above (figure 8).
These disk-like features are located in
the same areas of the fractures where
we would expect to see the more
obvious irregular channels. The
“disks” are visible when one looks
perpendicular to the plane of the
feather, but they are practically invisi-
ble when the viewing direction is
more parallel to the feather. Figure 9. This 3.58 ct heart-
The fact that we have seen these shaped diamond was graded Very
unusual features in a large number of Light pink in a standard labora-
diamonds clearly indicates that they tory viewing environment. When
are being created by design. These exposed to short-wave UV radia-
disk-like characteristics are more dif- tion, however, it became F color.
ficult to recognize than the irregular Its appearance with standard
channels noted earlier in these laser- lighting provided no clue to its
induced feathers, which makes this unusual luminescence behavior.
Figure 7. Internal laser drilling treatment more challenging to detect.
can create a series of small step- It is, therefore, very important to use
like feathers that connect an high magnification and various light
inclusion to the surface of the sources to check all surface-reaching Unusual “Pink”
diamond, often leaving behind a fractures that extend from totally Some diamonds display a change of
white area with a sugary texture internal inclusions. color when exposed to light or heat.
in the center of the feathers. Vincent Cracco and The most frequently encountered dia-
Magnified 37¥. Halina Kaban monds exhibiting this phenomenon
are chameleon diamonds, which
change from yellow to yellowish
Figure 8. These two images show examples of the disk-like characteris- green or green when exposed to light
tics created by internal laser drilling that have recently become very after storage in the dark. Gentle heat-
common. These disks may be small and nondescript (left, at 63¥ mag- ing of this type of diamond produces a
nification) or larger and still show some evidence of irregular channels temporary bright yellow color. In
within them (right, at 40¥ magnification). addition, some Argyle pink diamonds
have been observed to change from
pink to brownish pink or brown when
exposed to ultraviolet radiation. In
both cases, the color change is tempo-
rary, with the diamond quickly
returning to a stable color state once
it is removed from the environment
that produces the temporary color.
Recently a 3.58 ct Internally
Flawless type IIa diamond was sub-
mitted to the West Coast lab for
investigation of its color-change phe-
nomenon. When examined in the
lab’s standard viewing environment,
this particular diamond was given a
color grade of Very Light pink (figure
9). When it was exposed to short-
wave UV radiation, however, the gem

GEM TRADE LAB NOTES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 165
 the illumination history of the dia-
mond can produce different fluores-
cence and phosphorescence phenome-
na and result in different color states.
For these types of diamond, a careful
neutralization of the temporary phe-
nomenon is necessary before a final
color grade can be determined. A
more detailed report on the unusual
properties of this particular diamond
is currently underway.
Shane Elen and Ronnie Geurts

Figure 10. GE has started commercial production of synthetic jadeite in a High-Quality

range of colors and qualities. The samples shown here weigh 1.54–4.06 ct. SYNTHETIC JADEITE
from General Electric
General Electric (GE) Gem Tech-
nology has developed a proprietary
changed to an F color. The pink could cence lasting 2 to 60 minutes or process for manufacturing synthetic
be restored by exposure to either long- more jadeite. GE shared a small number of
wave UV or daylight. 4. Diamond color changing from early production samples with the
In contrast to the above-men- “near colorless” to “pink”: weak GIA Gem Trade Laboratory. The
tioned more common “chameleon” orange phosphorescence lasting 1 samples ranged in color and quality
change in color, this diamond showed to 2 seconds, changing to moderate (figure 10), but the finest green mate-
no change during or immediately greenish blue phosphorescence rial rivaled “Imperial” jade in appear-
after storage in the dark. Thus, the lasting 5 to 30 seconds ance (see figure 11). Although GE has
diamond remained pink if it was not yet released details about the new
stored as a pink diamond or colorless Although the observation of phos- technology, a GE spokesperson did
if it was stored as a colorless dia- phorescence typically requires a dark- tell us that it is achieved in a high-
mond. The pink color “returned” room environment, the strong green- pressure environment.
slowly after exposure to long-wave ish blue phosphorescence was visible The gemological properties of the
UV radiation or daylight. for quite some time even in dim light small number of samples we have
Note that, in addition to produc- under certain exposure conditions. tested to date overlap those of natural
ing a strong orange fluorescence when This is one of the very rare color- jadeite. For example, the 6.11 ct cabo-
exposed to long- or short-wave UV change “pink” diamonds in which chon (13.60 ¥ 12.00 ¥ 4.00 mm) shown
radiation (which is typical for some in figure 11 had a refractive index of
type IIa pink diamonds), the 3.58 ct 1.66, measured on the flat base, and a
diamond also exhibited orangy red Figure 11. The finest green GE specific gravity of 3.34, determined
fluorescence to the wavelengths of synthetic jadeite, such as this 6.11 hydrostatically. Using a desk-model
blue light. Depending on the initial ct cabochon, has an appearance spectroscope, we observed a 437 nm
diamond color, the excitation wave- very similar to “Imperial” jade. line along with three strong chrome
length, exposure duration, and num- lines at approximately 630, 655, and
ber of exposures, up to four different 690 nm. We are currently analyzing
phosphorescence states were observed the results of additional spectroscopic
in this diamond: testing, as we work with GE to deter-
mine identification criteria for this
1. Diamond color “pink”: medium new product.
orange phosphorescence lasting 3 GE research on jadeite synthesis
to 15 seconds extends back 20 years (see, e.g., R. C.
2. Diamond color changing from Devries and J. F. Fleischer, “Synthesis
“pink” to “near colorless”: no of jadeite for jewelry,” Symposium
phosphorescence Proceedings of the Materials Research
3. Diamond color “near colorless”: Society, Vol. 22, 1984, pp. 203–207;
strong greenish blue phosphores- and K. Nassau and J. E. Shigley, “A

166 GEM TRADE LAB NOTES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002
 than the first. The refractive index
was over the limits of the refractome-
ter, and the desk-model spectroscope
showed three broad bands that are
typically associated with cobalt.
Microscopic examination did not
reveal any inclusions. However, there
were numerous spots of lighter color
on the surface, and some facet junc-
tions appeared paler than the sur-
rounding facets (figure 13).
Because the refractive index of this
stone was so high, we used the laser
Raman microspectrometer to deter-
mine its identity. The Raman spec-
trum matched that of sapphire. With
Figure 12. These two sapphires (2.74 and 2.23 ct) were submitted to the EDXRF, we then determined that
laboratory together. The lighter one (left) showed evidence of standard there was a very high concentration of
diffusion treatment with titanium. The darker stone was colored by a cobalt at the surface of the stone.
very shallow surface layer that contained cobalt. It was clear that the high cobalt
concentration at the surface was the
cause of the extremely high R.I. read-
study of the General Electric synthetic 1980s, many articles have been ings. We have encountered this
jadeite,” Spring 1987 Gems & written about such stones and their before, particularly with red diffu-
Gemology, pp. 27– 35). GE plans to identification (see, e.g., R.E. Kane et al., sion-treated corundum that has very
publish a detailed article on the char- “The identification of blue diffusion- high concentrations of chromium at
acteristics of this new material in the treated sapphires,” Summer 1990 the surface and, more recently, with
next several months. TM Gems & Gemology, pp. 115 –133). blue-to-green topaz that derives its
The blue color was produced by diffus- color from a cobalt-rich surface layer
ing titanium into the surface of the (see, e.g., S. F. McClure and C. P.
sapphire. Smith, “Gemstone enhancement and
About the time the aforemen- detection in the 1990s,” Winter 2000
Cobalt-“Diffused” SAPPHIRE tioned article was published, we were Gems & Gemology, pp. 336–359).
Since the introduction of diffusion- also shown some experimental sap- The blue-to-green treated topaz is
treated blue sapphire in the early phires in which cobalt was used often referred to in the trade as “dif-
instead of titanium as the diffusing fusion-treated,” even though it has
agent. This produced a vibrant blue not been proved that diffusion is
color, but the color layer was so thin actually taking place.
Figure 13. When the cobalt- that no real penetration of the corun- As with the topaz, the depth of
colored sapphire was immersed dum could be seen at 60¥ magnifica- the blue surface coloration on the
in methylene iodide and exam- tion. In the years that followed, we 2.23 ct sapphire could not be seen.
ined with magnification in dif- never saw this product sold on the The layer was obviously very shallow,
fused light, irregularities in the market. with even small chips and scratches
color were evident. Note the A short time ago, two blue sap- penetrating through to the colorless
light-colored spots and paler phires (2.23 and 2.74 ct) were submit- core. Thus, we could not be certain
facet junctions. ted to the West Coast laboratory for whether the color of the sapphire was
identification (figure 12). The 2.74 ct due to diffusion treatment, or the
sapphire was easily proved to be diffu- product of some other type of surface
sion treated, as it possessed the char- reaction with the cobalt.
acteristics typical of this process: high The submission of this cobalt-col-
relief in methylene iodide, concentra- ored sapphire to the laboratory raises
tions of color at facet junctions, and some questions about whether this
patchy coloration. material has now entered the market-
The 2.23 ct sapphire, however, place. Since we saw only the one
was much different. The color of this stone, we do not know the answer at
stone was darker and more saturated this time. SFM

GEM TRADE LAB NOTES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 167
 Because these beads were an ioned from schlossmacherite, a sul-
unusual yellow-green (see, e.g., figure fate-arsenate member of the beudan-
14), our client had questioned their tite group. To confirm the identity of
identity as variscite. The lenticular this rare material, Sam Muhlmeister
beads, which measured approximately performed EDXRF qualitative chemi-
14.00 ¥ 10.00 ¥ 5.00 mm, were evenly cal analysis. The analyses revealed
colored and appeared to have been that the material primarily contained
fashioned from the same piece of aluminum, sulfur, and arsenic, as well
material. A few beads also showed as calcium, copper, and other minor
some prominent darker green “veins.” trace elements, which substantiated
Figure 14. Advanced testing When we examined the beads with a the identification as schlossmacherite.
revealed that these three beads microscope at standard 10¥ magnifica- This rare mineral was named after
(each approximately 14.00 ¥ 10.00 ¥ tion, we noticed that the material had the dean of German gemology, Prof.
5.00 mm) were fashioned from the a fine-grained, almost colloidal-appear- Dr. Karl Schlossmacher. Originally
rare gem material schlossmacherite. ing structure. We also observed that found in Guanaco (Chile), it was first
the darker-appearing “veins” were introduced by K. Schmetzer and H.
actually a finer-grained phase of this Bank in 1979 (Zeitschrift der Deutsch-
material. Despite the poor polish, we en Gemmologischen Gesellschaft,
SCHLOSSMACHERITE, were able to determine a vague spot Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 131–133) and de-
Yellow-Green Beads refractive index reading of 1.57. The scribed as a new mineral in 1980 by K.
In early 2002, staff members in the specific gravity was measured at 2.35. Schmetzer et al. (Neues Jahrbuch für
West Coast laboratory were chal- The beads did not show an absorption Mineralogie Monatshefte, Vol. 1980,
lenged to identify several opaque yel- spectrum or any reaction to long- or No. 5, pp. 215–222). KNH
low-green beads that had been submit- short-wave ultraviolet radiation. Since
ted for analysis. The material had these properties are not within the
been represented as variscite, an reported range for variscite, we turned PHOTO CREDITS
essentially colorless aluminum phos- to advanced testing methods to identi- Maha Tannous—figures 1, 9, and 12;
phate that appears green-blue when fy the beads. Elizabeth Schrader—figures 2, 4, 5, 10,
iron and chromium are present. With the client’s permission, Dino and 11; Vincent Cracco—figures 6, 7, and
Green-blue variscite is often used as DeGhionno performed an X-ray pow- 8 (left); Shane McClure—figures 8 (right)
an ornamental stone, or dyed and sold der diffraction analysis and deter- and 13; Don Mengason—figure 14.
as a substitute for turquoise. mined that the beads had been fash-

(Please mention this ad when ordering to receive your FREE Twenty-Year Index.)

168 GEM TRADE LAB NOTES GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002
GEM NEWS International
EDITOR
Brendan M. Laurs (blaurs@gia.edu)
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Emmanuel Fritsch, IMN, University of
Nantes, France (fritsch@cnrs-imn.fr)
Henry A. Hänni, SSEF, Basel, Switzerland
(gemlab@ssef.ch)
Kenneth Scarratt, AGTA Gemological Testing Center,
New York (kscarratt@email.msn.com)
Karl Schmetzer, Petershausen, Germany
(schmetzerkarl@hotmail.com)
James E. Shigley, GIA Research,
Carlsbad, California (jshigley@gia.edu)
Christopher P. Smith, Gübelin Gem Lab,
Lucerne, Switzerland (cpsggl2@hotmail.com)

CONFERENCE REPORTS toire de Geochimie des Isotopes Stables, Paris, studied dia-
AGU meeting examines diamond provenance. A session monds from the Panda kimberlite in Canada, and conclud-
on “Determining Diamond Provenance” was held at the ed that nitrogen and carbon isotopic data could not be used
American Geophysical Union’s Spring 2002 semiannual to distinguish them from other sources. Dr. Erik Hauri of
meeting, which took place May 28–31 in Washington, the Carnegie Institution of Washington (D.C.) demonstrat-
D.C. The session was prompted by concerns over identify- ed how variations in nitrogen and carbon isotopes—as well
ing “conflict” diamonds after they have been removed as a complex cathodoluminescence zoning pattern—in a
from their source area. Dr. Stephen Haggerty of the diamond crystal from the Mir kimberlite in Russia provid-
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, began with an ed evidence of a complicated growth history. Such varia-
overview of the problems associated with determining the tions within a single crystal illustrate the difficulties of
geographic origin of gem diamonds. The contributor of using geochemical data to establish diamond provenance.
this entry, director of research for GIA, discussed technical Dr. Nikolai Sobolev of the Institute of Mineralogy and
challenges for determining “country of origin” by analyti- Petrography, Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk,
cal methods—for example, the lack of a representative col- illustrated how the prevalence of chromite as mineral
lection of diamonds from known primary and secondary
deposits to establish if there are characteristics unique to
each deposit. Since determining country of origin by ana-
lytical means appears to be impossible at this time, the Figure 1. The sulfur isotope compositions of sulfide
jewelry industry has recommended procedures to track inclusions—such as the one shown here in a rough
diamonds from legitimate sources so as to exclude illegiti- diamond—may help determine the geographic source
mate diamonds from conflict countries. Dr. Larry Taylor of diamonds, when combined with other information.
of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, also described Photomicrograph by John I. Koivula; magnified 10´.
the need for a more thorough scientific study of larger col-
lections of diamonds from major deposits to establish if
certain features (such as inclusions and isotopic data) pro-
vide evidence of geographic source.
Dr. Peter Deines of Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, presented carbon isotope and inclusion
chemical data on diamonds from kimberlite pipes in
Botswana and South Africa, and demonstrated that while
diamonds from different kimberlites can be geochemically
distinct, they may show complex variability within single
samples or among different ones. He concluded that there
was no simple diagnostic pattern of geochemical features
that could link his diamond samples unambiguously to a
particular kimberlite. Dr. Pierre Cartigny of the Labora-

170 GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

inclusions in Yakutian diamonds can provide evidence of
their geographic origin. Dr. Jeffrey Harris of the
University of Glasgow, U.K., showed how variations in
shape, color, and surface features also offer a potential
means of establishing geographic source. However, the
absence of similar data on conflict diamonds is a major
drawback to validating this approach. Dr. Steven Shirey,
also of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, described
how establishing the ages of diamonds using radiometric
methods does not appear to hold potential for establishing
provenance due to overlap in diamond ages from various
deposits. Dr. James Farquhar of the University of
Maryland, College Park, studied sulfur isotope composi-
tions of sulfide inclusions (see figure 1) in diamonds from
Orapa, Botswana, as an alternate means of elucidating
their geologic history. When combined with other infor-
mation, this might help determine the source of dia-
monds. Dr. Eva Anckar of the University of Cape Town,
South Africa, presented results of a multivariate analysis
of diamonds—incorporating nitrogen content and aggrega-
tion, hydrogen content, infrared spectra, color, shape, size,
surface features, and cathodoluminescence patterns—to
show that this statistical approach has the potential to Figure 2. Colorado is the source of several gem mate-
differentiate among diamond sources. rials, including this aquamarine from Mt. Antero in
Overall, these presentations demonstrated that some the Sawatch Range. The faceted stones range from
analytical techniques hold promise for distinguishing dia- 3.50 to 18.95 ct. Courtesy of the Denver Museum of
monds from particular deposits, but further work is needed Nature and Science; photo by Jack Thompson.
on a more complete collection of diamonds from all major
sources to fully establish the validity of these techniques.
JES
their original host rock. The lack of rock fragments on the
GSA meeting reports on Western U.S. gem occurrences. sapphires, and the fact that more than 100 years of sapphire
The 54th Annual Meeting of the Rocky Mountain Section mining has failed to reveal the primary host rock, suggest
of the Geological Society of America took place May 7–9 that the original bedrock was friable and easily eroded, so it
at Southern Utah University in Cedar City, Utah. The would not leave surface outcrops. Dr. Jeffrey Keith of
meeting included a session on “Gemstone and Brigham Young University (BYU), Provo, Utah, described a
Semiprecious Minerals and Host Rocks in the Western rare occurrence of emeralds (not of gem quality) in a black,
United States.” Peter Modreski of the U.S. Geological organic-rich shale in the Uinta Mountains in northern
Survey, Denver, Colorado, outlined the gem occurrences Utah, and pointed out the geologic similarities to the
in Colorado, which include deposits of pegmatite minerals famous emerald deposits in Colombia. In the same area is
(aquamarine [figure 2], smoky quartz, topaz, and ama- an extensive occurrence of massive, fibrous, translucent
zonite feldspar), as well as diamond, peridot, turquoise, brownish yellow calcite that is carved for ornamental pur-
lapis lazuli, and rhodochrosite. W. Dan Hausel of the poses. Presentations on the deposits and genesis of red beryl
Wyoming State Geological Survey, Laramie, summarized in the Wah Wah and Thomas Mountains in Utah were
gem and mineral localities in that state. Historically,
nephrite jade and various agates and jaspers have been the
most important gem materials, but sapphires and iolite
were found recently. In a separate presentation, he Editor’s note: Bylines are provided for contributing edi-
described new kimberlite discoveries in the Iron Mountain tors and outside contributors; items without bylines
district in southeastern Wyoming. were prepared by the section editor or other G&G
staff. All contributions should be sent to Brendan Laurs
Richard Berg of the Montana Bureau of Mines and
atblaurs@gia.edu (e-mail), 760-603-4595 (fax), or GIA,
Geology, Butte, discussed probable sources of Montana’s 5345 Armada Drive, Carlsbad, CA 92008.
large alluvial sapphire deposits. Preservation of delicate sur-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 170–186
face features that formed during magmatic transport, and
© 2002 Gemological Institute of America
the absence of internal conchoidal fracturing, indicate that
the sapphires were transported only a short distance from

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 171

given by Timothy Thompson and Jean Baker, also from Canada. In 2001, Canada produced about 3.5 million carats
BYU. At both localities, red beryl is a post-magmatic min- of diamonds, all from the Ekati mine in the Northwest
eral that occurs in fractures within rhyolite host rock. Territories (NWT). The diamonds were mined from both
Crystallization of red beryl probably resulted from the reac- the Panda pipe and the newly opened Misery pipe, and rep-
tion of beryllium- and fluoride-rich vapors with groundwa- resent about 3% of the world’s supply by weight and 6% by
ter in the fractures. JES value. Within one year, these figures are expected to
increase to perhaps 10% in both categories when the
Report from the 3rd World Diamond Conference, Diavik mine (which has diamonds of overall lower quality
Vancouver. On June 17 and 18, 2002, this conference attract- than Ekati) starts production. The status of several Cana-
ed approximately 450 diamond exploration company execu- dian diamond projects at various stages of evaluation and
tives, as well as investors, government officials, mining geol- development (mainly in the NWT, Nunavut, and Saskatch-
ogists and engineers, and diamond dealers. As was the case ewan) was also discussed, as were exploration programs in
with the previous conferences (see, e.g., Fall 2001 GNI sec- new regions. Currently, the most exciting activities in
tion, pp. 222–225), Chaim Even-Zohar was the moderator. Canada, in which more than 50 companies are involved,
The conference program was well rounded, but was domi- are taking place in Quebec. Diamonds are now known
nated by two topics: (1) Canada as a major player in the from three new areas in this province (figure 3), and geolo-
world diamond scene, and (2) “conflict” diamonds. gists have found encouraging diamond-indicator-mineral
“trains” in others. Elsewhere in Canada, exploration con-
tinues at a feverish pace (e.g., in the North Slave geological
province, also known as the Coronation Gulf area), and has
resulted in the discovery of several new diamond-bearing
Figure 3. More than 50 companies are currently kimberlites.
exploring for diamonds in Quebec, which is the Inevitably, additional mines will be developed in
most recent exploration region in Canada (i.e., Canada, which is a preferred country for diamond explo-
since 1996). Six diamond-bearing kimberlites have ration and mining because of its good infrastructure and
been found in the Otish Mountains area since late political, social, and economic stability, as well as favorable
2001. A diamondiferous kimberlite dike was found geologic factors. In fact, it is estimated that currently 50%
in the Wemindji area in early 2002, and a system of of the diamond exploration monies budgeted worldwide are
diamond-bearing ultramafic dikes was discovered spent in Canada. The main requirements for diamond min-
in 1996 in the Torngat Mountains. Diamond indica- ing companies, as stipulated by all levels of Canadian gov-
tor minerals are being investigated in glacial ernment, are: (1) respect for the environment and local
deposits in several other regions of the province. (indigenous) cultures; and (2) creation of meaningful oppor-
tunities for Canadian workers—for example, in diamond
cutting as well as mining.

Conflict Diamonds. The future of the Kimberley Process

(to certify locality of origin for diamonds as they move
through the trade from the source to the retailer, so that
conflict diamonds will be excluded from the marketplace)
is not yet assured, because it has not been ratified by sever-
al of the approximately 30 countries necessary for its suc-
cess; at press time, for example, it had not yet passed the
U.S. Senate. However, the unrest that initially generated
the issue—that is, civil wars in certain African countries—
appears to be improving naturally. With political stability
on the horizon for both Angola and Sierra Leone, and with
signs of improvement in the Democratic Republic of
Congo, the proportion of conflict diamonds may be as low
as 1.5% of the total world rough diamond production
(compared to as much as 4% two years ago).
Several conference participants expressed concerns
about the practicality of the Kimberley Process. Some
maintained that two factors are critical to the success of
the initiative: (1) Control of the diamonds by authorized
persons must be achieved at the point of extraction from
the ground, and (2) uncertified stones must not be allowed

172 GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

Figure 4. These round modified brilliants (0.50–0.76 ct) have unusual faceting arrangements. The two on the left
have 100 facets, and those on the right, 73 facets. Courtesy of Rosy Blue International; photo by Maha Tannous.

to enter the legitimate stream. Nevertheless, the industry mains are each split into three facets, two trapezoids, and an
overwhelmingly supports the Kimberley Process, both for elongated hexagon. Two more trapezoids plus two small tri-
its humanitarian aspects and to safeguard the integrity of angular facets substitute for each of the nine pairs of lower-
the market. Further, enforcement measures of the girdle facets. Both the nine-fold symmetry and the division
Kimberley Process may forestall any future attempts to use of the pavilion into many facets with small angular differ-
diamonds for inappropriate purposes. ences among them contribute to the distinctive appearance
of this cut.
Special Award. The conference ended with a fitting trib- The other round modified brilliant cut, named the
ute to Charles E. Fipke, who was presented with the first “Aster” cut, has 73 facets (again, see figure 5). The crown
“Diamond Pioneer of Canada” award for being instrumen-
tal in finding the Lac de Gras kimberlite field in 1990.
A. A. Levinson
University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada Figure 5. These faceting diagrams for the 100-facet
levinson@geo.ucalgary.ca and Aster (73-facet) cuts display the complexity of
these designs. The many small facets demand preci-
sion cutting to achieve the desired optical effects.
Courtesy of Rosy Blue International.
DIAMONDS
New round diamond cuts. Rosy Blue International
(Antwerp, Belgium) recently showed GIA researchers sever-
al examples of two unusual round modified brilliant cuts
that provide additional perspective on the relationship
between cut and the face-up appearance of a faceted dia-
mond (figure 4). The faceting arrangements of these dia-
monds create an interesting pattern of contrasting light and
dark areas in the face-up diamond. Over the preceding sever-
al months, we had begun to focus some of our diamond cut
research efforts on the patterns displayed by round brilliants
of various proportions, and how the properties of these pat-
terns can affect human perception of a diamond’s brilliance.
Therefore, we were pleased to have the opportunity to
examine these diamonds, to see how changes in the number
and arrangements of facets could affect face-up appearance.
A standard round brilliant has 58 facets: 33 on the crown
and 25 on the pavilion (including a culet but excluding gir-
dle facets), with eight-fold symmetry around a central axis.
As illustrated in figure 5, one of these new cuts has the
usual facet types on the crown but with nine-fold symme-
try, which produces 37 crown facets. The pavilion has 63
facets, also with nine-fold symmetry, for a total of 100 facets
(excluding a culet or any girdle facets). The nine pavilion

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 173

 COLORED STONES AND
ORGANIC MATERIALS
Benitoite recovery and cutting: Significant progress. Since
March 2001, the Benitoite Gem mine in San Benito
County, California, has been worked on a seasonal basis
Figure 6. In an environment that emphasizes con- (generally from March to May, when water is available) by
trast, these diamonds show patterns with many Benitoite Mining Inc., Golden, Colorado (see Spring 2001
small bright spots (some are circled), contributing to GNI section, p. 68). During the 2001 season, the company
their scintillation. The images on the left and center focused on mining gem and specimen material from the
are of the 100-facet round modified brilliants, lode and evaluating the best way to recover gem rough
whereas the one on the right is of a 73-facet round. (including small fragments discarded by previous activi-
Courtesy of Rosy Blue International; composite ties) from the eluvial deposit, mine dumps, and other
photo by Al Gilbertson. unconsolidated material. In 2002, mining focused mainly
on gem rough. By the time the 2002 season ended in early
June, some important strides had been made in both
recovery and cutting.
is standard, but 16 facets have been added to the pavilion According to company president Bryan Lees, a new pro-
as eight additional pavilion mains (extending about three- cessing plant—with a capacity of 150 tons of material per
fourths of the way to the girdle) and eight triangular facets day—began operation in April 2002 (figure 7). The plant
above them (which break into the lower-girdle facets). uses a system of vibrating screens combined with high-
Figure 6 shows two of the 100-facet round modified pressure washing. First, the ore is dumped in a hopper and
brilliants and one of the 73-facet rounds photographed in an the boulders are removed; next, any fragments over 3¼ 4
environment that emphasizes the contrast pattern of a inch (1.9 cm) are sprayed by water jets and directed to a
faceted diamond in the face-up position. In the two 100- conveyer belt for hand-picking of potential mineral speci-
facet diamonds, the nine short, hexagonal facets that radi- mens. The remaining washed and screened material is sent
ate from the culet create nine bright reflections under the through a jig system. Two large jigs catch pieces over 5 ¼ 32
center of the table, like a nine-petalled flower. At the same inch (4 mm), while smaller fractions pass down into their
time, the pairs of trapezoidal facets beyond them are seen hutch compartments. This hutch material is dewatered
as nine dark reflections of these pavilion “mains” distribut- and sent to a smaller jig, which catches pieces down to 2
ed under the bezel facets of the crown. The 73-facet design mm. By comparison, fragments smaller than 3 mm were
shows 16 distinct reflections of both the full and partial rejected during previous mining activities. The benitoite
pavilion mains, while the eight triangular facets above the concentrate—including gem, near-gem, and nongem mate-
partial mains create an effect similar to that of a French tip rial—is removed from the jigs each day.
on a fancy shape at eight spots around the girdle. Experiments were done to test whether X-rays could
The size and distribution of spots of bright white and be used to automate the concentration process (as is done
black in these patterns is significant. The movement of in diamond mines), but benitoite’s strong fluorescence to
such spots when the diamond, light source, or observer X-rays resulted in an unacceptably large amount of con-
moves is an important factor in scintillation (i.e., flashes taminants being allowed into the concentrate because the
of light seen through the crown as the diamond moves system was over-activated. Also, the technique could not
relative to the light source and observer), and the contrast discern between gem- and nongem material.
they produce can affect human perception of overall However, Mr. Lees indicated that another technique
brightness. For the 100-facet design, the specific distribu- has revolutionized the processing of the concentrate: mag-
tion of these spots depends strongly on the precision of netic separation. Since benitoite is the only material in the
the pavilion faceting. We noted marked variations in this concentrate that contains iron, 100% of the gems can be
appearance aspect among the eight examples of this separated by this technique. In addition, this method has
faceting style we examined, and we mentioned these dif- proved useful in separating much of the near-gem and
ferences to the client. By repolishing two of the samples nongem benitoite from the facetable fraction. Experiments
(one of them more than once), cutters at Rosy Blue suc- to date have shown that 400 pounds (181 kg) of concen-
ceeded in making the pattern appear more uniform. These trate can be processed in just two hours. Mr. Lees feels
observations showed again the importance of precise cut- that magnetic separation could be applied successfully to
ting to achieve the desired result from a complicated other gem minerals as well.
faceting design. Cutting and marketing are being handled by Iteco Inc.
Tom Moses and Ilene Reinitz of Powell, Ohio. Iteco president Paul Cory stated that
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, New York approximately 1,000 carats of melee have been faceted
tmoses@gia.edu during the last year, in full round brilliants ranging from

174 GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

 Figure 7. This new process-
ing plant was installed at
the Benitoite Gem mine in
spring 2002. Material is
dumped into the hopper (far
left) and proceeds up the
conveyer belt to a wash-
ing/screening apparatus (top
right). Mineral specimens
larger than 3 ¼4 inch (1.9
cm) are hand picked from
the conveyor belt on the far
right. Smaller material is
sent through a jig system,
which is partially visible
(tan-colored box) below the
screening apparatus.
Benitoite concentrate,
down to 2 mm, is removed
from the jigs each day.
Photo by Bryan Lees.

1.5 to 4 mm in diameter. Based on the critical angle of mineral species (figure 9). They too are usually brown to
benitoite (34.7°), all of the stones are faceted in a consis- black, but very rarely the crystals are color zoned brown
tent set of proportions to yield the best face-up appear- and light yellowish brown; the latter color is concentrated
ance. A range of color, from colorless to deep violetish near the surface. The cut gems are most commonly light
blue, is available (figure 8). Most of the material is a medi- yellowish brown, but some bicolored brown and yellowish
um violetish blue, with near-colorless and deep violetish brown stones have also been faceted (figure 10). As part of
blue each accounting for about 10% of the volume. Since a German foreign aid project, the Viloco miners have been
all the melee was faceted from rough found during the instructed to separate out top-quality gem- and specimen-
2001 season—derived mostly from the mine dumps— grade cassiterite rather than process it as ore. The gem-
future production may show a different color distribution stones are cut in Bolivia and marketed overseas. During a
as various parts of the deposit are mined. Dichroism is 2001 trip to Bolivia, this contributor saw hundreds of
taken into account when orienting larger rough to yield carats of faceted Viloco cassiterite.
the best color, but the melee stones are not cut in any par- According to R. Webster’s Gems (5th ed., rev. by P. G.
ticular orientation. So far, the largest stone cut from the
2001 production weighed 3.55 ct, and several other stones
exceeding 3 ct also were produced. Although Benitoite
Mining sells many of the stones loose, it is presently Figure 8. Benitoite melee is now being faceted in
seeking partnerships with jewelry manufacturers and full round brilliants with a consistent set of propor-
developing its own line. tions. A range of colors is available, as shown here
Depending on demand and mining activity, Mr. Lees (0.07 ct each). Courtesy of Benitoite Mining Inc.
expects the mine to produce commercial quantities of beni- and Iteco Inc.; photo by Robert Weldon.
toite for approximately 5–10 years. Specimen material will
remain an important part of the production, as there appears
to be more in-situ lode material than originally anticipated.
Mining of both loose material and the lode deposit will
occur concurrently during the next several field seasons.

Cassiterite from Viloco, Bolivia. Faceted cassiterite is rare.

Although Nigeria, Russia, and China produce limited
quantities, the only locality producing significant amounts
of gem rough is the Viloco mine, near Araca in La Paz
Department, Bolivia.
Cassiterite is tin oxide, SnO2 , that is typically brown
to black due to iron impurities. Cassiterite from Viloco
forms as druses of highly lustrous crystals that are consid-
ered by collectors to be among the finest examples of the

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 175

Figure 9. This 9 ´ 7 cm specimen with numerous Figure 10. Faceted cassiterite from Viloco is typically
partially transparent cassiterite crystals is from the light brownish yellow, although bicolored stones—
Viloco mine in Bolivia. Photo by Jaroslav Hyrsl. similar to the oval on the far right—also are cut. The
center stone weighs 11.77 ct; photo by Jaroslav Hyrsl.

Read, Butterworth-Heinemann, London, 1994), cassiterite

is uniaxial with very high refractive indices—nw=2.003, it tests positive for “diamond” on conventional diamond
ne=2.101—which are well over the limit of a standard testers. Cassiterite is electrically conductive, so it also will
refractometer. It also has very high dispersion (0.071, near- test positive for “moissanite” on some of the new synthet-
ly twice that of diamond) and a hardness of 6.5 on the ic moissanite testers. The best way to distinguish the two
Mohs scale. Cassiterite has an extremely high specific materials when set in jewelry is by microscopic examina-
gravity of about 7, so loose stones are easy to recognize by tion of their inclusions. Parallel white or silvery needles
their heft. It shows no features with a hand spectroscope are typical for synthetic moissanite, whereas virtually all
and is inert to UV radiation. cassiterites contain veils of two-phase inclusions.
Due to its high birefringence (0.098), cassiterite is often Cassiterite from Viloco also occasionally contains tourma-
faceted with the table perpendicular to the optic axis (simi- line needles (figure 11; probably dravite), as confirmed by
lar to synthetic moissanite), so the facet edges do not X-ray diffraction analysis.
appear blurred. Although near-colorless cassiterite is rare, Jaroslav Hyrsl
it could be easily confused with synthetic moissanite. Like Kolin, Czech Republic
synthetic moissanite, it has high thermal conductivity, so hyrsl@kuryr.cz

Emerald with feldspar matrix from Brazil. While in Minas

Gerais in summer 2001, this contributor encountered sig-
Figure 11. Tourmaline needles occur as inclusions
nificant quantities of a new type of fashioned emerald
in some cassiterites from Viloco. Photo-
from the Nova Era area. These cabochons consisted of
micrograph by John I. Koivula; magnified 20 ´.
irregular intergrowths of semitransparent emerald in a
white matrix (figure 12). Only rarely were euhedral emer-
ald crystals (i.e., with hexagonal cross sections) seen in the
cabochons. Most of the white material showed well-devel-
oped cleavage, and X-ray diffraction analysis of one sample
proved it was plagioclase (most probably andesine). Quartz
was present only sporadically in the matrix, as small color-
less grains without cleavage. Rough pieces of the emerald
rock were surrounded by dark mica, probably phlogopite.
Some of the polished stones also contained dark greenish
brown flakes of mica. The specific gravity of five represen-
tative cabochons ranged from 2.67 to 2.74; it increased
only slightly with emerald content. The emerald in the
cabochons was inert to long- and short-wave UV radiation,
and showed no reaction to the Chelsea filter.
A similar emerald matrix material is known from the
Big Crabtree mine in North Carolina (see Summer 1993
Gem News, p. 132). In contrast to the new Brazilian

176 GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

material, however, the North Carolina cabochons con-
tained well-formed emerald crystals in a granular quartz-
feldspar matrix.
Jaroslav Hyrsl
Kolin, Czech Republic
hyrsl@kuryr.cz

Sunstone feldspar from Tanzania. At the 2002 Tucson

gems shows, Abe Suleman of Tuckman Mines and
Minerals Ltd., Arusha, Tanzania, showed G&G editors a
7.88 ct sunstone from a new deposit in Tanzania (figure 13).
He reported that the mining area covers several square kilo-
meters in the vicinity of the village of Engare Naibor,
northwest of Arusha, near the border with Kenya. The area,
which is occupied predominantly by members of the
Masaai tribe, is semi-arid and hilly. The feldspar reportedly
is found in dolomitic layers, with mica schist and traces of
calcite. The miners have dug several pits up to 4–5 m deep. Figure 13. This 7.88 ct sunstone, from a new locali-
Production is inconsistent and hampered by the ty in Tanzania, contains conspicuous iridescent
remoteness of the locality. Both faceted stones and cabo- orange inclusions that were identified as hematite.
chons (figure 14) are produced. The polished stones com- Courtesy of Abe and Anisa Suleman; photo by
monly attain weights up to 10 ct, although Mr. Suleman Maha Tannous.
has cut cabochons as large as 125 ct.
The 7.88 ct sunstone, which was donated to GIA by
Abe and Anisa Suleman, was examined by Elizabeth
Quinn of the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory in Carlsbad. The were identified as hematite on the basis of laser Raman
modified round brilliant was light grayish green with microspectrometry by GNI editor Brendan Laurs. Several
numerous eye-visible iridescent orange platelets (figures 15 near-colorless needles were identified as an amphibole,
and 16). Refractive indices of the stone were 1.537 and probably anthophyllite (again, see figure 15), also by Raman
1.547, and the specific gravity was 2.64; these properties are analysis. In addition, microscopic examination revealed
consistent with oligoclase feldspar. The orange inclusions lamellar twin planes and a fracture.

Figure 14. Abundant hematite platelets—some

Figure 12. These cabochons (here, up to 16 mm showing iridescence—are visible in this 20.81 ct
long) have been fashioned from irregular inter- cabochon of sunstone from Tanzania. Courtesy of
growths of emerald and plagioclase found in Minas Michael Randall, Gem Reflections, San Anselmo,
Gerais, Brazil. Photo by J. Hyrsl. California; photo by Robert Weldon.

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 177

Figure 15. The inclusion scene in the 7.88 ct sun- Figure 16. The iridescence displayed by the
stone consists of orange platelets of hematite and hematite inclusions in the 7.88 ct sunstone was par-
near-colorless needles of anthophyllite. Photo- ticularly pronounced when a fiber-optic light was
micrograph by John I. Koivula; magnified 10´. used in conjunction with the shadowing technique.
Photomicrograph by John I. Koivula; magnified
15´.

Update on Namibian demantoid garnet. At the 2002

Tucson shows, Chris Johnston, owner of Johnston- and the small desert town of Usakos. The garnet is hosted
Namibia C.C. of Omaruru, Namibia, showed the G&G by skarns (metamorphosed carbonate rocks) that are near
editors some attractive jewelry set with well-cut deman- the contacts with granitic rocks. Only near-surface, small-
toid garnet in calibrated sizes (figure 17). To supplement scale mining of these primary deposits has been done to
the Fall 1997 (pp. 222–223) Gem News item on this mate- date, with limited mechanized equipment. Most of the min-
rial, Mr. Johnston provided the following information. ing has taken place on Farm Tubussis off the Okombahe-
Demantoid from Namibia has been known since at Usakos road, near the small Damara village of Tubussis.
least the 1930s, but the deposit lay idle until rediscovered by Besides informal mining activities, currently there is one
the gem trade in 1997. The mines are located in the Erongo active mechanized operation, which markets the stones
Mountains area of west-central Namibia, between Omaruru through Gem Demantoid Inc. of Bangkok, Thailand.
Mr. Johnston estimates the total current production
of demantoid at about 8 kg per month, of which 2 kg is
gem quality, mostly in the 0.3–1 gram range. About 15%
Figure 17. The Namibian demantoid in this 18K of the gem rough is top green color (i.e., without too
yellow/white gold jewelry was mined recently and much yellow/brown). Most of the cut goods he has sold
cut to calibrated sizes ranging from 3 to 5 mm in range from 3 to 5 mm in diameter, in round, trillion, and
diameter. Courtesy of Chris Johnston; photo by oval shapes. He believes the market strength of this
Maha Tannous. niche material is in melee and as accents in Art Deco-
and Art Nouveau–style jewelry.

Unusual kyanite from Brazil. Brazil is one of the main

sources of gem-quality kyanite. During the last few years,
large quantities of kyanite crystals (some with facetable
portions) were mined from the vicinity of Vitoria de
Conquista in Bahia. The crystals can approach 10 cm long,
and very rarely they exhibit unusual shapes that result
from natural deformation (figure 18). The faceted stones
typically range up to about 5 ct, although attractive gems
over 50 ct have been cut. The crystals can show both blue
and green areas; generally a strip of blue is seen along their
length. A few bicolored stones have been faceted.
One of us (JH) observed some interesting inclusions in
recently acquired green and bluish green kyanite from
Brazil (probably also from the Vitoria de Conquista area). In
two stones, light brown to orange-brown inclusions up to
approximately 1 mm in diameter were identified as garnet
by Raman analysis at GIA in Carlsbad (figure 19); it was

178 GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

not possible to establish the particular species. Associated
with garnet in one sample were green tourmaline and irreg-
ular masses of colorless quartz, also identified by Raman
analysis (figure 20). Flat, black crystals with a metallic lus-
ter were probably ilmenite.
The two samples with garnet inclusions were light yel-
low-green, with greenish yellow and bluish green
pleochroism. Both stones had refractive indices of na =
1.718, nb = 1.727, and ng = 1.734, yielding a birefringence of
0.016; both were biaxial negative. (Note that nb was found
by rotating the stones on the refractometer to find the
direction of maximum birefringence [n g], and then rotating Figure 19. Garnet forms conspicuous inclusions in
the polarizing filter.) Specific gravity values were 3.67 and these Brazilian kyanites (largest, 9.62 ct). Photo by
3.69; both stones were inert to UV radiation. Jaroslav Hyrsl.
Jaroslav Hyrsl (hyrsl@kuryr.cz)
and John I. Koivula
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Carlsbad

South Sea cultured pearls with broken beads. The Gübelin (S. Akamatsu, pers. comm., July 2002). It is difficult to
Gem Lab recently examined a single-strand necklace com- obtain large-diameter beads from the Mississippi freshwa-
posed of 25 South Sea cultured pearls (figure 21). When X- ter mollusks that are typically used for South Sea cultured
rayed, several of the pearls seen on the x-radiograph were pearls because of their size. Mr. Akamatsu noted, howev-
revealed to contain beads with a series of dark lines. The er, that the beads derived from giant clam shells have an
owners later mentioned that those particular cultured inherent problem: They tend to break during the drilling
pearls were very difficult to drill, with several drill bits process.
broken in the process. This necklace contains the first examples seen by the
At the CIBJO conference held in Munich, Germany, Gübelin lab of large South Sea cultured pearls with broken
last March, Shigeru Akamatsu of K. Mikimoto & Co. Ltd. beads. It is not known what effect these broken beads may
(Tokyo, Japan) announced that a new type of bead was have on the long-term durability of the cultured pearls.
being used to nucleate larger South Sea cultured pearls. With the large quantities of these beads that are reportedly
These beads were fashioned from the shell of the giant being used, it can be expected that more such cultured
clam (Tridacna gigas). He indicated that massive amounts pearls will be encountered in the future.
of this abundant shell material were being used to pro- CPS and Christian Dunaigre
duce large-diameter beads (i.e., 8+ mm), which are report- Gübelin Gem Lab
edly manufactured at Chinese factories on Hainan Island Lucerne, Switzerland

Figure 18. These kyanite crystals from Brazil were Figure 20. An unusual inclusion assemblage of
deformed by natural forces. Portions of the crystals orange-brown garnet, colorless quartz, and green
are transparent enough to be faceted. The largest tourmaline is present in this kyanite from Brazil.
crystal here is 5 cm long; photo by Jaroslav Hyrsl. Photomicrograph by John I. Koivula; magnified 15x.

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 179

 Figure 21. This necklace of South Sea cultured pearls
(16.25–19.40 mm) contained several broken shell
beads. The X-radiograph clearly shows a series of paral-
lel breaks in two of the beads. In one of these, the
breaks are visible as a series of sharp lines because they
are parallel to the viewing direction; in the other, the
breaks appear as elliptical areas because they are
inclined to the viewing direction. These cultured pearls
apparently contain a new type of bead, made with the
shell of the giant clam. Photo by Franzisca Imfeld.

Some developments in freshwater cultured and “keshi” aptly marketed as “spikes” (figure 22). The individual
pearls. At the AGTA show in Tucson last February, this crosses averaged approximately 45 ´ 25 mm, and were
contributor noticed some eye-catching freshwater cultured available in white, pink to orangy pink, grayish pink to
pearls. Betty Sue King of King’s Ransom (Sausalito, purple, and multicolored, as well as dyed “silver”-gray to
California) had some of the popular cross-shaped tissue- black. Ms. King indicated that naturally colored cultured
nucleated cultured pearls in dramatic strands that were pearls are used to produce the dyed colors, since they
accept the dye better than the white ones. Although large
amounts of low- to medium-quality material are on the
market, the higher-quality cultured pearls—with smooth
Figure 22. Strung together, these cross-shaped tissue- surfaces, even luster, and perpendicular cross members—
nucleated cultured pearls resemble a crown of are available only in limited quantities.
thorns, and are marketed as “spikes.” Their dimen- Ms. King also had pink Chinese freshwater cultured
sions average approximately 45 ´ 25 mm. Courtesy pearls that were nucleated with square-to-rectangular
of King’s Ransom; photo by Maha Tannous. shell preforms. They measured approximately 25 – 20
mm on a side, with rounded corners. Their surfaces var-
ied from smooth to wavy or welted, with high luster and
very high orient.
Distinctive shapes of freshwater “keshi” pearls were
seen at Adachi America Corp., Los Angeles (figure 23). The
pink to light purple “butterfly keshi” resembled two thick
flakes or “wings” attached at the edges. A similar-appear-
ing white product was named “snowflake keshi.” Other
names include “keshi twins” and “flowering keshi.”
Another freshwater keshi product, which Sayoko Adachi
called “puka pearls,” took the form of wavy, wafer-thin
disks, which were available in natural cream to brown,
brownish green to greenish brown, and pink. In strands,
they resembled a puka shell necklace. Both the butterfly
and “puka” products, which measured about 11 mm in
longest dimension, are non-nucleated by-products of the
freshwater pearl culturing industry in Shanghai, China;
they result from spontaneous growth after a harvest of tis-

180 GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

sue-nucleated cultured pearls. An Adachi representative
reported that due to the popularity of the “puka” material,
pearl farmers are now attempting to nucleate this shape.
Cheryl Wentzell
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Carlsbad
cwentzell@gia.edu

New sapphire locality in Afghanistan. At the 2002 Tucson

shows, Dudley Blauwet of Dudley Blauwet Gems,
Louisville, Colorado, showed GNI editor Brendan Laurs
two sapphires (0.40 and 0.72 ct; figure 24) that were report-
edly mined from Medan Khar, in Vardak Province west of
Kabul. Small-scale mining of the deposit started in late
October 2001. During a trip to Pakistan in June 2002, Mr.
Blauwet learned that at least 2 kg of rough had been pro- Figure 23. These freshwater “keshi” pearls have dis-
duced. Approximately 1,000 carats have been cut so far, tinctive butterfly and puka shell shapes. The “but-
with the largest stones reaching approximately 2 ct. terfly” cultured pearls are approximately 11 mm in
Almost all of the faceted stones were being sold into the longest dimension. Courtesy of Adachi America
local market in Peshawar. Corp.; photo by Maha Tannous.
Examination of the two sapphires by Elizabeth Quinn
at the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory in Carlsbad yielded the
following properties: Color—dark blue to very dark blue;
pleochroism—blue and bluish green; R.I.—nw=1.772, and ne=1.625 (birefringence 0.022); by comparison, R.I.
ne=1.764; birefringence—0.008; S.G.—3.98, 4.03; inert to readings of the pink area yielded nw=1.641 and ne=1.623
long- and short-wave UV radiation; and iron absorption (birefringence 0.018), and the yellowish green rim had
bands at approximately 450, 460, and 470 nm seen with nw=1.640 and ne=1.620 (birefringence 0.020). As mentioned
the desk-model spectroscope. These properties are consis- in the Dirlam et al. article, the measurement of birefrin-
tent with those typically found in blue sapphires. gence on tourmaline slices cut perpendicular to the c-axis
Microscopic examination revealed lamellar twin planes, may be related to biaxial domains within the crystal.
needles, clouds, feathers, “fingerprints,” and straight (pla- When the slice was viewed parallel to the c-axis with a
nar) color zoning. No evidence of heat treatment was polariscope, anomalous double refraction was prevalent.
seen. The pink-to-red tourmaline was inert to long- and
short-wave UV radiation, whereas the yellowish green
Elbaite-liddicoatite tourmaline from Vietnam. In the pro- rim showed weak yellow-green fluorescence to short-
cess of researching potential liddicoatite localities for the wave UV. Microscopic examination revealed a network of
Spring 2002 G&G article on this tourmaline (see D. M.
Dirlam et al., “Liddicoatite tourmaline from Anjana-
bonoina, Madagascar,” pp. 28–53), one of these contribu-
tors (BL) borrowed an attractive slice of Vietnamese tour- Figure 24. These two sapphires (0.40 and 0.72 ct) were
maline from the collection of William Larson of Fallbrook, reportedly mined from a new locality in Afghanistan,
California. The slice showed the red trigonal star that is so west of Kabul in Vardak Province. Courtesy of
commonly seen in liddicoatite-elbaite from Madagascar Dudley Blauwet Gems; photo by Maha Tannous.
(figure 25), and electron-microprobe analysis of the red area
by one of these contributors (WS) confirmed the presence of
liddicoatite (see table A-1 of the Dirlam et al. article). Since
descriptions of gem-quality tourmaline from Vietnam are
scarce in the literature, this GNI report will describe the
sample in more detail.
As seen in figure 25, the slice was complexly zoned
with an overall yellowish green rim and pink-to-red core,
which is typical of “watermelon” tourmaline. Portions of
the sample showed “aggregate”-type color zoning (see F.
Benesch, Der Turmalin, Verlag Urachhaus, Stuttgart,
Germany, 1990), but the most conspicuous feature was
the red trigonal star mentioned above. Refractive indices
of a representative portion of the red area were nw=1.647

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 181

 its color from trace amounts of chromium and vanadium
(see N. R. Barot and E. W. Boehm, “Gem-quality green
zoisite,” Spring 1992 Gems & Gemology, pp. 4–15). As
described by Barot and Boehm, “pure” green zoisite does
not respond to heat treatment, whereas bluish green and
yellowish or brownish green material typically will
become a more saturated “steel” blue or greenish blue
when subjected to temperatures above 600°C.
According to Tom Schneider (of Thomas M. Schneider,
San Diego, California), several kilograms of green to bluish
green rough became available just before the 2002 Tucson
show. Most of the rough weighed approximately 1 gram
and yielded cut stones of 2 ct or less. No new production
has entered the market since then, although miners are
again quite active in the Merelani region.
Aside from the original 1991 find and this most recent
production from Merelani, this contributor knows of only
one other discovery of green zoisite—in Pakistan in the
early 1990s—which produced less than half a kilogram of
Figure 25. This tourmaline slice from Vietnam (5.5 ´ rough and some attractive crystals (see Winter 1992 Gem
4.1 cm) resembles liddicoatite from Madagascar, but News, pp. 275–276).
was found to consist mainly of Ca-rich elbaite. Also at this year’s Tucson shows, zoisite rough exhibit-
Courtesy of William Larson; photo by Maha Tannous. ing combinations of colors that may be seen in this gem
material—green, blue, purple, and even pink—appeared
more prevalent than in previous years (see, e.g., Spring

abundant partially healed fractures, as well as growth

structures (or “graining”) in directions parallel to the
color zoning. Solid inclusions consisted of two white
Figure 26. This 12.33 ct bluish green zoisite from
equant crystals that resembled albite, and a minute spher-
the recent production at Merelani, Tanzania, was
ical brown particle.
fashioned from a 32 ct piece of rough by Meg Berry.
The slice was analyzed by electron microprobe along
The characteristic distinct pleochroism of zoisite is
two traverses: one starting in the core and following the
quite evident. Courtesy of JOEB Enterprises and
dominant red zone to the yellowish green rim, and the
Pala International (Fallbrook, California); photo by
other perpendicular to this (from rim to rim). Of 29 points
Maha Tannous.
that yielded quantitative data, one analysis—in the red
zone, approximately halfway between the core and rim—
corresponded to liddicoatite, with Ca/(Ca+Na) = 0.51. The
other analyses revealed Ca-rich elbaite, with Ca/(Ca+Na) =
0.34–0.48. There were no systematic correlations between
Ca content and color. However, the chromophoric ele-
ments Mn, Fe, and Ti did vary with color, as expected.
Average values (in wt.%) were: Red = 0.12 FeO, 1.91 MnO,
and 0.04 TiO2; pink = 0.23 FeO, 0.91 MnO, 0.03 TiO2; and
yellowish green = 0.53 FeO, 0.44 MnO, 0.07 TiO2. No
other chromophoric elements (i.e., Cr, V, or Cu) were
detected.
BL and
William “Skip” Simmons and Alexander Falster
University of New Orleans, Louisiana

Green zoisite reappears. Gem-quality green zoisite from

the Merelani area in Tanzania reappeared at the 2002
Tucson gem shows this year after a 10-year hiatus (figure
26). This unusual color variety of zoisite was first discov-
ered in Tanzania in 1991. Like some emeralds, it derives

182 GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

Figure 27. These three cabochons (up to 1.5 ct) were
identified as massive fuchsite. This material has
been sold as emerald in India. Courtesy of
Shyamala Fernandes; photo by H. A. Hänni.

1993 Gem News, pp. 61 and 63). This material was sold as Figure 29. A green rim of higher saturation is visible
“Mardi Gras tanzanite” by some dealers. through the polished base of this massive fuchsite
Edward Boehm cabochon (5.5 mm in diameter). The stone was prob-
Joeb Enterprises, Solana Beach, California ably treated with green oil. Photo by H. A. Hänni.
Joebgem@aol.com

SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS material appeared to be composed of more than one min-
Massive fuchsite imitations of emerald. Recently eral that showed different tones of green (figure 28).
Shyamala Fernandes of the Gem Testing Laboratory in The specific gravity of the cabochons (measured
Jaipur, India, asked this contributor for assistance with together, due to their rather small size) was 2.89, and their
identifying three translucent green cabochons (figure 27) refractive index was 1.58 (approximate value only, due to
that are representative of material that is sometimes sold the shape of the cabochons and their polycrystalline struc-
as emerald in that country. Certain aspects of their appear- ture). Since these results were not satisfactory for identifi-
ance were quite unlike emerald, however: A granular to cation, the samples were studied by advanced techniques.
flaky structure was visible with magnification, and the Raman analysis of five spots that showed various tones
of green identified only muscovite. To investigate the cause
of the green color, the samples were analyzed by EDXRF
spectrometry, which revealed major amounts of Si, Al, and
Figure 28. Microscopic examination of the massive K, and minor amounts of Ca, Rb, Sr, Fe, and Cr. The pres-
fuchsite revealed an aggregate of crystals in differ- ence of Cr was consistent with the green color of this mica,
ent orientations, resulting in various tones of green. which we identified as the fuchsite variety. The texture of
Photomicrograph by H. A. Hänni; magnified 50´. the mineral aggregate, with the strongly pleochroic crystals
in various orientations, caused the appearance of different
tones of green (again, see figure 28). The cabochons also
contained rare orange and white grains, which were identi-
fied by Raman analysis as rutile and dolomite, respectively.
Examination of the flat polished base of one of the
cabochons revealed a rim of higher green saturation (figure
29), which suggests that green Joban oil was present. FTIR
spectroscopy confirmed the presence of an oil.
Fuchsite is typically found included in quartz (aven-
turine), but less commonly it forms in nearly monominer-
alic aggregates. A similar material—verdite—is a metamor-
phic rock that is composed of fuchsite and traces of rutile;
it was originally found in South Africa (J. A. Jackson, Ed.,
Glossary of Geology, 4th ed., American Geological
Institute, Alexandria, Virginia, 1997, p. 699). Similar fuch-

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 183

 growth planes n-r-n. In addition, one of the stones also had
incomplete twin planes along the positive rhombohedron r
{1011}. Semi-quantitative chemical analysis by EDXRF
revealed 0.54– 0.92 wt.% Cr2O3, 0.06–0.11 wt.% Fe2O3,
and 0.01–0.03 wt.% Ga2O3. Titanium and vanadium were
at or below detection limits. In addition to these elements,
traces of zirconium (0.02–0.03 wt.% ZrO2) also were mea-
sured, which did not relate to inclusions visible with a
standard gemological microscope. No other heavy ele-
ments were detected.
The presence of the flux remnants, together with the
Figure 30. These two flux-grown synthetic rubies (7.61
internal growth structures and trace-element concentra-
and 4.49 ct) had an unusual combination of proper-
tions, confirmed that these three stones were flux-grown
ties, including trace-element contents that have not
synthetic rubies. However, the combination of these charac-
been recorded previously. Photo by H. Hänni.
teristics is not wholly consistent with the features seen in
the more familiar flux-grown synthetic rubies. Similar
forms of pinpoint stringers, commonly referred to as “rain,”
are generally associated with the Kashan product, and may
site-rich ornamental rocks have since been found in several be encountered in some flux-grown synthetic rubies from
world localities (see R. Webster, Gems, 5th ed., rev. by P. other producers such as Douros. The dominant n-r-n growth
G. Read, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, England, 1994, structures are typical of flux-grown synthetic rubies from a
p. 383). The origin of the material used to fashion these par- variety of producers, such as Ramaura, Douros, and Kashan.
ticular cabochons is unknown. HAH Nevertheless, zirconium has not been recorded in any com-
mercial flux-grown synthetic rubies (i.e., by Chatham,
Unusual synthetic rubies. Recently, the SSEF and Gübelin Douros, Kashan, Knischka, or Ramaura, or in the experi-
laboratories examined three unusual synthetic rubies mental flux-grown synthetic rubies by Gilson). Zirconium
weighing 3.21, 4.49, and 7.61 ct (see, e.g., figure 30). With has been recorded on occasion in natural rubies, but it
magnification, all showed flux remnants along healed fis- always coincided with zircon crystals located at or just
sures (figure 31) as well as linear trails of pinpoint inclu- below the surface of the area being analyzed. In addition, the
sions (figure 32). An analysis of the internal growth struc- presence of iron and gallium, combined with the lack of
tures revealed dominant bipyramidal and rhombohedral titanium and vanadium, is uncommon in various flux-
grown synthetic rubies. Heavy elements such as lead or
tungsten, which would be expected in the synthetic rubies

Figure 31. This partially healed fracture contains

a network of flux inclusions that is typical of
those seen in most flux-grown synthetic rubies. Figure 32. Very fine, parallel to subparallel stringers
Fracturing of the flux remnants gives them an of pinpoints also were visible in the unusual flux-
appearance similar to crazing. Photomicrograph grown synthetic rubies. Photomicrograph by
by Christopher P. Smith; magnified 30´. Christopher P. Smith; magnified 18´.

184 GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

Figure 33. This 45.45 ct rutile with man-made aster- Figure 34. This yellowish brown, slightly translucent
ism shows an 11-rayed asymmetric star with incom- tourmaline (13.14 ct) with man-made asterism dis-
plete arms. Some of the arms also are split at the plays a 12-rayed, asymmetric star with additional
outer region of the cabochon. The star is sharp, but “satellite” lines in the center of the sample. As in
the stone appears fuzzy because the camera is figure 33, the stone appears fuzzy (and the star
focused below the cabochon’s curved upper surface. sharp) because the camera is focused below the
Photo by M. Glas. upper surface of the cabochon. Photo by M. Glas.

from Chatham, Douros, or Ramaura, were not detected. scratches on the surface; incomplete arms on the stars;
Only once before, in October 2001, has the Gübelin irregular splitting or misoriented “satellite” arms; some-
Gem Lab encountered a synthetic flux-grown ruby that what curved or asymmetric rays; and/or extra rays or a
contained Zr. The other properties and characteristics of number that is inconsistent with the symmetry of the
that stone were also similar to the three samples described mineral. These observations suggest the cabochons are
here. Since it is difficult to explain how Zr would be incor- scratched using a non-automatic (manual) production pro-
porated into the corundum structure, we presume that it cess without complex equipment. Most probably, the
was related to the presence of submicroscopic particles in technique is similar to that described in 1950 by R. S.
those four synthetic ruby samples. Mukai in U.S. Patent 2,511,510 (see K. Schmetzer,
It is unclear at this time whether these synthetic rubies “Production of fake asterism,” Journal of Gemmology,
represent a new product. Regardless, the identification of Vol. 28, No. 2, 2002, pp. 109–110).
these unusual synthetics is easily accomplished through While photographing some of these cabochons, we
careful observation of the flux inclusions with a loupe or noticed another factor that also might be helpful for identi-
microscope. Chemical analysis will also reveal traces of zir- fying the man-made asterism: The stars appeared sharpest
conium, as well as distinctive trace-element patterns. when the camera was focused below the curved upper sur-
CPS face of the cabochons (figures 33 and 34). We noted this
Lore Kiefert, SSEF characteristic in all seven of the cabochons that were avail-
Dietmar Schwarz, Gübelin Gem Lab able to us (i.e., three rutiles, two pyrope-almandine garnets,
and two tourmalines). In contrast, cabochons with natural
asterism—such as ruby, sapphire, garnet, quartz, or spinel
that contain oriented needle- or rod-like inclusions—have
TREATMENTS stars that appear sharpest when the camera is focused
Another identification criterion for imitation asterism pro- above the curved upper surface. These differences in aster-
duced by surface scratching. Oriented, man-made scratch- ism also can be readily seen with the gemological micro-
es on the upper surface of cabochons have recently been scope. This technique is particularly helpful in examining
described as the cause of fake asterism in several gem vari- very dark or opaque samples in which the asterism-causing
eties (see articles by S. F. McClure and J. I. Koivula, inclusions may be difficult to see, as well as for gems (such
Summer 2001 Gems & Gemology, pp. 124–128; and K. as quartz) that commonly contain needles too small to
Schmetzer and M. P. Steinbach, Journal of Gemmology, observe with the gemological microscope.
Vol. 28, No. 1, 2002, pp. 41–42). This man-made asterism KS and
can be easily recognized by several factors: the absence of Maximilian Glas
oriented, needle-like inclusions; the presence of oriented Starnberg, Germany

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 185

 into English and published by Lapis International LLC,
East Hampton, Connecticut. Issue 1, “Madagascar,” was
published in 2001, and Issue 2, “Emeralds of the World,”
has just been released. Call 860-257-1512, fax 860-267-
7225, or visit www.lapisint.com.

Conferences
Natural Glasses. Scheduled to be held in Lyon, France, on
August 29–31, this fourth international congress will
include presentations on materials such as obsidian,
fulgurite, Libyan desert glass, meteorite glasses, and
others. Call 33-04-7243-1037, fax 33-04-7243-1261, or
e-mail natglasses.info@adm.univ-lyon1.fr, or visit http://
natglasses.univ-lyon1.fr.
Figure 35. This 9.84 ct irradiated fluorite appears
deep blue in daylight-equivalent fluorescent light Diamond 2002. The 13th European Conference on
(as shown here) and purple in incandescent light. Diamond, Diamond-like Materials, Carbon Nanotubes,
Photo by Maha Tannous. Nitrides & Silicon Carbide will take place September 8–13
at the Granada Conference and Exhibition Centre,
Granada, Spain. Sessions will cover diamond growth, opti-
cal properties, and mechanical applications and properties
Irradiated color-change fluorite. At the Tucson 2002
of diamond and other superhard materials. Visit
AGTA show, this contributor noticed a small group of
http://www.diamond-conference.com, or contact Gill
attractive irradiated blue fluorites at the booth of MCM
Heaton at diamond@heaton-connexion.co.uk, 44-0-1865-
Gems, Middletown, Ohio. The rough was reportedly
373625 (phone), 44-0-1865-375855 (fax).
obtained from the Tres Barras mine in Minas Gerais,
Brazil, and was light yellow before gamma irradiation.
Hong Kong Jewellery and Watch Fair. To be held
This material was observed to show a color-change: deep
September 25–29 at the Hong Kong Convention and
blue in daylight-equivalent fluorescent light and purple
Exhibition Centre in Wanchai, this show will feature
in incandescent light.
educational seminars from leading gemological laborato-
Standard gemological testing of a 9.84 ct oval modified
ries, as well as auctions of fine South Sea and Tahitian
brilliant (figure 35) yielded the following properties, which
cultured pearls September 22–27. For more information,
are consistent with fluorite: R.I.—1.431, S.G.—3.19, inert
visit http://www.jewellery-net-asia.com.
to long- and short-wave UV radiation, moderate anoma-
lous double refraction, 570 nm band observed with a desk-
model spectroscope, and a red appearance with a Chelsea Exhibits
filter. Microscopic examination revealed numerous two- Pearls exhibit at the Field Museum. The comprehensive
phase inclusions, a few cleavage fractures, and patchy blue Pearls exhibition that debuted at the American Museum
color concentrations. No fade testing was conducted. of Natural History in New York (see Winter 2001 GNI
However, the color appeared stable in several pieces that section, pp. 341–342) is now at Chicago’s Field Museum
were on display for the duration of the show. until January 5, 2003. A weekly lecture series will comple-
The irradiation of fluorite has been performed for many ment the exhibit. Visit http://www.fmnh.org/pearls.
years, but it is interesting to find irradiated fluorite with
an attractive blue color and a color change. Diamond exhibition in Antwerp. The Antwerp
Elizabeth Quinn Diamond Council (HRD) will present the exhibition
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Carlsbad “Living Diamonds—Fauna and Flora in Diamond
elizabeth.quinn@gia.edu Jewellery Until 1960” October 10–November 10 at the
new Diamond Museum of Antwerp. The exhibition will
illustrate animal and plant motifs in diamond jewelry
ANNOUNCEMENTS from leading auction houses, jewelers, museums, and pri-
Now available: extraLapis English. Selected issues of the vate collectors. Visit www.diamonds.be/hotnews, e-mail
popular German periodical extraLapis are being translated info@diamant.provant.be, or call 32-03-202-4890.

186 GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

 THANK YOU
DONORS
GIA appreciates gifts to the museum collection, as well as stones, library materials, and other
non-cash assets to be used in GIA’s educational and research activities. These contributions help GIA
serve the gem and jewelry industry worldwide while offering donors significant philanthropic and
tax benefits. We extend sincere thanks to all 2001 contributors.

$100,000 OR HIGHER $2,500 TO $4,999 $500 TO $999 Diane C. Goodrich

Anonymous Robert & Marlene Anderson Theodore M. Baer Jeffrey P. Gurecky
Kurt Nassau, Ph.D. Rick Canino Bear Essentials Co. Suzanne A. Harned, A.J.P.
United States Pearl Co. Louis P. Cvelbar, G.G. Ford, Gittings & Kane House of Onyx, Inc.
(James & Venetia Peach) Al Fetanat Will Heierman George C. Houston, Inc.
Ito Co. Ltd. Syed Iftikhar Hussain
Kristopher R. Hernandez
Johannes Hunter Jewelers A. J. A. Janse, Ph.D.
James Houran
$50,000 TO $99,999 Jonz Jayrock
James Y. Hung, M.D., F.A.C.S. Kenneth F. Rose Gemstones
Island Legacy, Ltd. Mary L. Johnson, Ph.D.
Scott D. Isslieb, G.G. Mikhail Khronlenko
Zvi & Rachel Wertheimer Gale S. Kerkoski, G.J.G.
Bernard H. Kaplan, G.G. Lucent Diamonds
Kempf's Creative Jewelry, Inc. Koblenz & Co. Estate Jewelry
Estate of James R. McShane Gary Kraidman
$10,000 TO $49,999 Carlos Alcaraz Lamana
Aaland Diamond Company MIMports UNDER $500
Wayne C. Leicht
German Ayubi Eunice Parker Means Anonymous (3)
Johnny Lu
Steve Davis Sierra Gems Afco Far East Ltd.
Gerald E. Manning
Dr. & Mrs. Richard V. Dietrich Son Tree Ta Shigeru Akamatsu
MEGreene Enterprises
Harry G. Kazanjian & Sons, Inc. USAA Alliance Services Co. Allerton Cushman & Co.
Ruby Moore
(Mr. & Mrs. Arthur Kazanjian) Herb Walters Argyle Diamonds
L. Morgan Jewelers
William F. Larson Mary E. Wurst, Gemologist, A.J.P. Steve & Nancy Attaway
Moriarty's Gem Art
Mayfield's Inc. Luis Fernando Barrera
Dennis P. Batt Lori L. Moyer, G.G.
Donald & Ruth Milliken
Doug & Nadine Behr Mona Lee Nesseth, G.G.
Stephen M. Neely, M.D. $1000 TO $2,499
Oro America K. C. Bell Paulson Pearls
Anonymous Wayne Potterton
Pala International, Inc. Ismael Daoud Edward W. Boehm, G.G., C.G.
Frederick H. Pough, Ph.D. Boutique Art Designs Erin Randall-Orgel, G.G.
Anil B. Dholahia, Inc. Sherri Gourley Skuble
Stephen & Eileen Silver of S.H. George Brooks
Charles H. Fox James E. Shigley, Ph.D.
Silver Company Dr. Grahame Brown
Richard W. Hughes, F.G.A., A.G. Russell B. Shor
Edgar Cambère, G.G.
Kathryn Johnstone Mark H. Smith, A.G.
Cambodia Blue Zircons Co.
$5,000 TO $9,999 Ronald Léon Donald Clary, Gemologist Dwight R. Soares
Ebert & Company Jim C. Morey, R.J. Colorado Gem & Mineral Co. Julia P. Solodova, Ph.D., G.G.
GINN-M Corporation Sdn Bhd John Patrick Fran Drezek Gerald Stockton
InColor Enhanced Diamonds Linda S. Pedersen, G.G. Victoria duPont, G.G. Abe Suleman
Joseph Borden Estate Sara Gem Corporation DW Enterprises Melanie Trent, G.G.
Ramsey Gem Imports, Inc. Normand E. Slick Russell C. Feather, II, G.G. Starla E. Turner, G.G., F.G.A.
Star Ring, Inc. Tara & Sons, Inc. GemCorp, Inc. Mrs. Zane Vaughn

GIA needs donations that vary in nature. Examples are natural untreated and treated stones, synthetics and
simulants, rare gemological books, and equipment and instruments for ongoing research support.
If you are interested in making a donation, and receiving tax deduction information, please call
Patricia Syvrud at (800) 421-7250, ext. 4432. From outside the U.S., call (760) 603-4432, fax (760) 603-4199.

THANK YOU, DONORS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 187

Book REVIEWS

2002 EDITORS
Susan B. Johnson
Jana E. Miyahira-Smith

Diamond Ring Buying uncomplicated illustrations to drive gemstones of these remarkable pieces.
Guide, 6th Ed. home the verbal points. The Diamond The tiara photos are complemented
Ring Buying Guide is an entire course by remarkable portraits, ancient and
By Renée Newman, 160 pp., illus., on judging diamonds in 156 pages of modern, of the owners wearing their
publ. by International Jewelry well-organized information. pieces, as well as by original render-
Publications, Los Angeles, CA, ings of tiaras produced by well-known
GAIL BRETT LEVINE
2002. US$17.95* jewelry houses such as Boucheron, E.
Publisher, Auction Market Resource
This is another fine update in a series Rego Park, New York Wolff & Company, and Fabergé.
of books that are useful to both the One has to go to great lengths to
jewelry industry and consumers. This find anything even mildly critical to
sixth edition is current on recent Tiaras: Past and Present say about Tiaras: Past and Present.
changes in the diamond industry, par- The only passage I found slow in this
ticularly in its discussion of diamond By Geoffrey Munn, 128 pp., illus., immensely readable and fascinating
treatments. It provides explanations of publ. by V&A Publications, book was the complex and somewhat
HPHT, fracture filling, laser drilling, London, 2002. US$22.50* confusing (to an American) enumera-
coatings, and irradiation, with infor- Today when you think jewelry, you tion of which tiaras were owned by
mation on how to detect them. rarely think “tiara.” But as Geoffrey which members of the British and
Chapter 6, “Judging Cut Quality,” Munn points out in this excellent European royalty in the 20th century
deals with the thorniest issue in the book, for much of history tiaras have (in the chapter “At Court”). However,
diamond world in a nontechnical fash- been essential parts of jewelry ensem- such a listing is invaluable to jewelry
ion. With generous photo examples, bles for women of wealth. Since the historians researching specific pieces.
one can easily view the differences development of the art of gold- And the stories about these individual
between a good cut and an inexact cut. smithing in ancient times, writes women, often found in the picture
A comparison of the AGS, GIA, and Munn, tiaras have been associated captions, are delightful.
HRD proportion-grading standards with “privilege and ostentation.” As Munn shows, tiaras are a win-
illustrates the dilemma created by the In this exceptionally well-illustrat- dow into cultural history, and they
lack of a unified standard. However, ed work, Munn follows the history of act as a lens through which we see the
the chapter ends with a very practical tiaras, starting with early Greek and development of jewelry art itself.
section on “Judging Cut with the Eye Roman use of flower and leaf head Tiaras: Past and Present is a worth-
Instead of with Numbers.” wreaths, through the incorporation of while addition to the libraries of art
Newman makes the gemological tiaras into the traditional costume of and jewelry historians for its personal
data easy to understand for novice and Russian women and their use as the sketches and documentation of many
veteran alike. The terminology is not traditional adornment of brides. Tiaras pieces. It is also sure to fascinate jew-
confusing, but rather clear and con- were embraced by European nobility elers and gemologists with breathtak-
cise, with a writing style that is spare in the 18th and 19th centuries, and ing designs and gemstones. Taken all
and factual. This book could be used were the mark of married women at
as a training manual for your sales society functions. Although the use of
staff, or as a gift for those favored and tiaras fell by the wayside in the more
inquisitive customers. casual and democratic 20th century, *This book is available for pur-
chase through the GIA Bookstore,
For the consumer, everything is modern designers are reintroducing 5345 Armada Drive, Carlsbad, CA
there, so that the book serves as a the tiara with a contemporary flair and 92008. Telephone: (800) 421-7250,
checklist for the purchase, mounting, unusual materials. ext. 4200; outside the U.S. (760)
and care of a diamond. The photos are Keith Davey’s superb photos clear- 603-4200. Fax: (760) 603-4266.
excellent, and there are plenty of ly show the workmanship, design, and

188 BOOK REVIEWS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

together, the book creates in the read- anecdotes and vignettes to demon- study and a book written for a popular
er a true appreciation of what Munn strate how traders look at diamonds audience. The author does expressly
calls the “noblest and most flattering and deal with one another as well as state the boundaries of her study (the
of jewels.” with a female “stranger” in their ultraorthodox Jews and Hasidim for
SHARON ELAINE THOMPSON midst. She uses fictitious names to whom the DDC is a center of their
Salem, Oregon preserve her subjects’ privacy. business life), but it seems that a book
The middle of the book offers a on New York’s diamond community
detailed look at diamond trading rules that is intended for a general audience
and customs, from the haggling over should at least acknowledge the large
Diamond Stories: Enduring
price to the sealing of the diamond in number of Indian dealers and the
Change on 47th Street a cachet (small envelope) until the growing number of Asians who have
By Renee Rose Shield, 234 pp., buyer says “Mahzal” and offers his become integral to the industry.
illus., publ. by Cornell University handshake. Within this simple proce- Nevertheless, Diamond Stories is
Press, Ithaca, NY, 2002. US$29.95 dure are time-honored rules. One can- the best view of the cloistered world
The author, an accomplished cultural not, for example, show the diamond of New York’s Jewish diamond com-
anthropologist, is a niece and cousin to another buyer after it has been munity that anyone has ever set down
of several New York diamantaires. In “cacheted.” One broker was roundly in print. The author captures the trad-
researching this book, she spent more criticized for his practice of making ing environment, the negotiation ritu-
than 14 years talking with diamond high counteroffers to one dealer, then als, and the sardonic wit and “folk-
people in their offices and in the New turning around and selling to some- lore” with a sympathetic insider’s
York Diamond Dealers Club. The re- one else for a much lower premium view and without the stereotypes and
sult is an intimate and very personal before the first buyer actually refused clichés to which others have fallen
look at the closed world of the Jewish the deal. prey. Throughout the book, she
diamond brokers, from the philosoph- The author discusses in detail how relates how diamond dealers admon-
ical humor that peppers much of their GIA diamond grading reports and the ished her to “get the tone right.” That
conversation to the ways in which the Rapaport Report price lists have revo- she has done very well.
strict religious practices of the ultra- lutionized the industry. As might be RUSSELL SHOR
orthodox and Hasidim are integrated expected, the “old guard” brokers Gemological Institute of America
into their business dealings. complained that price lists and Carlsbad, California
The book is divided into seven “certs” have removed the human fac-
chapters. The first four describe in tor from the diamond business, but
detail the business world of the bro- the author makes the counter-argu- Perlen
kers, who generally act as go-betweens ment that they have helped level the
for large manufacturers and dealers. playing field and broaden consumer By Elisabeth Strack, 696 pp., illus.,
Theirs is a highly competitive arena— confidence, such that sales are proba- publ. by Rühle-Diebener-Verlag,
many subsist on small commissions bly higher as a result. Stuttgart, Germany, 2000 (in
for each transaction—filled with ritu- The final part of the book discuss- German). –C 66.00
als, customs, and rules. es the changes taking place in the Originally published in 1982, with this
In this first part, the author New York industry: Women are mak- revised and updated edition Perlen has
attempts to establish the perspective ing slow inroads into the diamond grown into one of the most compre-
of New York Jewish life and the city’s trade, and the network of orthodox hensive textbooks on pearls. The first
thriving diamond community within and Hasidic brokers is declining as a half of the book is devoted to an in-
the diamond industry as a whole. The majority of the business now goes to depth discussion of the occurrences,
author offers a brief history of the dia- big players who rarely use the DDC or formation, distribution, and evaluation
mond industry, a now somewhat out- brokers. Change comes slowly inside of natural pearls. The opening chapters
of-date discussion of De Beers’s role, the club, partly because so many cover the history of the pearl and the
and a look at key issues that affect the elderly members do not want to retire. important role it has played through-
diamond market, including a brief One dealer in his nineties, who still out the centuries. The next chapters
review of the conflict diamond issues, visited the club every day, told the provide an extensive review of the tax-
balanced with a discussion of the pros- author that he did not want “to onomy and biology of all pearl-forming
perity that diamonds bring to some become bored or lazy” and still loved mollusks and their occurrences (orga-
countries. his work after all the years. nized by region). These are followed by
The author then discusses the The author does tend to bound a description of the physical and optical
atmosphere in the DDC and the deal- abruptly from subject to subject, mak- properties of pearls and their evalua-
ers’ offices, often through her personal ing the book difficult to follow at tion on today’s market. A complete
experiences with family members in times. Moreover, it is in a netherworld account of the most famous pearls con-
the business. She uses a number of between an academic anthropological cludes the first part of the book.

BOOK REVIEWS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 189

 The second part starts with a scope of the exhibit. Whether culled Sancys, and the uncut Dutoitspan,
detailed history of the culturing from ancient civilizations, modern- readers are treated to seldom-seen
process. Over the course of the next 12 day sirens, or meteoric dust, the beau- pieces from the houses of Mouawad,
chapters, the author elaborates with tifully portrayed diamonds in this Tiffany, and Cartier. A sampling of
the same thoroughness on cultured book mark and illuminate the global these other notables includes the 69.68
pearls, assembled cultured pearls, and history of rulers, adventurers, art, sci- ct Excelsior I, set in a fabulous
imitation pearls. Again, occurrences, ence, religion, human passions—and bracelet, and the 287.42 ct Tiffany dia-
formation, evaluation, and distribu- of the Earth itself. mond crowned by a Schlumberger set-
tion are discussed by region. A brief Chapters are organized to reflect ting. Contemporary masterpieces, if
chapter focuses on the physical and the many lives of diamonds, from jew- somewhat whimsical, include Cartier
optical properties of cultured pearls, els to tools and from the reaches of alligator brooches and a pair of Cartier
followed by a description of the count- intergalactic space to the depths of dia- diamond-and-rock-crystal bracelets
less imitation pearls. The remaining mond mines and the Earth’s core. A worn by Gloria Swanson.
chapters deal with the various tech- few technical chapters deliver concise Michael Hing’s translation is com-
niques developed to identify the differ- synopses of topics such as diamond petent, if occasionally quaint. The very
ent types of pearls encountered on grading, synthetics, and the evolution minor stylistic deficiencies seen with
today’s market. A chapter on the care of diamond cuts. Other chapters multi-authored books—the staccato-
of pearls concludes the book. explore diamond’s sacred nature in the like flow of an occasional chapter, an
The comprehensive bibliography world’s religions, magnificently illus- author’s excessive fondness for excla-
at the end of each chapter further trated by a treasure trove of rare man- mation—are quibbles beneath the
underscores the value of this publica- uscripts, religious texts, and lapidaries. book’s ambitious scope and triumphs.
tion. This new edition represents a Diamond’s regal stature at the heart of Although limited to 50 terms, the glos-
major contribution to the literature on power is examined in chapters that sary still manages to capture the
pearls and is essential in any gemolog- chronicle the gem’s unique role in civ- essence of diamond. Lacking an index
ical library. Although written in ilizations around the world and across (the book’s single noteworthy flaw),
German, an English language version centuries, best illustrated in the the reader has no choice but to redis-
will be available in the near future. accounts of the diamonds of mahara- cover the exhibit’s magic by flipping
KARIN N. HURWIT jahs, mughals, and monarchs. one breathtaking page after another.
Gemological Institute of America Crisp, high-quality photographs For any jeweler, historian, gemolo-
Carlsbad, California deliver a visual feast of famed as well gist, or diamond devotee, this afford-
as rarely seen gems, along with pre- ably priced catalogue will provide a
cious artifacts such as a handwritten lasting treasure from which to learn
Diamonds: In the Heart of the copy of the Diamond Sutra, one of the and savor the wonder and magnifi-
most important texts in Buddhism. cence that is diamond.
Earth, in the Heart of Stars, at
De Beers’s contributions include MATILDE PARENTE, G.G.
the Heart of Power important photodocumentation of the Rancho Mirage, California
By Hubert Bari and Violaine history of modern mining as well as
Sautter, Eds., 351 pp., illus., publ. the company’s collection of unusual
by Vilo International, Éditions crystals. Artful photographic images The Jewels of Jean
Adam Biro, Paris, 2001. US$60.00 of some of the world’s most revered Schlumberger
To understand diamonds is to under- diamonds are accompanied by en-
stand the structure and history of the lightening text and a refreshingly By Chantal Bizot, Marie-Noël De
Earth itself. That premise is the cor- unencumbered layout. Color is used Gary, and Évelyne Possémé, trans-
nerstone for this book. tastefully and with striking fidelity to lated by Alexandra Bonfante-
The 2001 exhibit for which this the gems still sparkling in this review- Warren, 157 pp., illus., publ. by
served as a catalogue debuted at the er’s memory. Where appropriate, Harry N. Abrams, New York, 2001.
French National History Museum in superb diagrams, tables, and render- US$39.95*
Paris, itself a monument to mineralo- ings provide further explication and Originally published in French, this
gy. The book’s 15 contributors reflect add visual interest for the reader. book served as the catalogue for
the museum’s scholarly tradition In addition to featuring an un- the 1995–1996 exhibit “A Diamond
across a range of disciplines that precedented collection of many of the in the City, Jean Schlumberger
includes archivists, curators, gemolo- most important diamonds in history, 1907–1987, Jewelry and Objects,”
gists, geologists, historians, acade- Diamonds provides a rare glimpse of which was held at the Musée des
mics, and researchers from astro- some of the most dazzling jewelry ever Arts Décoratifs in Paris. The book
physics to industrial diamond science. created. Beyond the gathering of such also serves as a visual testament to
The book succeeds in capturing major jewels as the Incomparable, the the creative genius of one of the 20th
the enormous, perhaps unequaled, Star of South Africa, the Nassak, both century’s greatest jewelry designers.

190 BOOK REVIEWS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

 Schlumberger’s designs were often entries of mineral and gem synonyms, MEDIA REVIEW
inspired by flora and fauna, which is variety names, names for synthetics,
Modern Gemmology,
evident in the many photographs and and trade terms that have been used
original design sketches printed through- throughout history was a marvelous SSEF Tutorials 1 & 2
out the book. The first nine chapters resource for collectors, curators, By SSEF Swiss Gemmological
divide Schlumberger’s work into loose researchers, and others in the gem Institute, www.ssef.ch, Basel,
categories such as “Sea,” which fea- trade. Now available is another ex- Switzerland, 2001. Available in PC
tures fanciful sea creatures; “Flowers tremely valuable book, which covers or Mac format. US $150 each/$250
and Fruit,” which highlights jewelry the same ground with approximately for both.
and other objects inspired by plant life; 32,000 entries. These two CD-ROM tutorials contain
and “Wings,” which features brooches Professor Bayliss’s book (like de a wide and interesting variety of top-
of feathers and wings. Light on text, Fourestier’s) is based on strict adher- ics from diamond grading to synthetic
these chapters are a delight to flip ence to the rules of modern miner- gems. The first CD contains four sep-
through. Each page leaves the reader alogical nomenclature, which allow arate presentations: (1) natural, syn-
wondering what wonderful jewel or only one name to be applied to a min- thetic, and imitation diamonds and
object of great beauty lies on the next. eral species; variations based on diamond treatments; (2) the identifi-
Most of the items featured were creat- color, or physical or chemical proper- cation of emerald treatments; (3)
ed during Schlumberger’s long and ties, are relegated to “obsolete” sta- pearls; and (4) ruby. The second CD
illustrious tenure with Tiffany & Co. tus. Therefore, the “obsolete” terms continues with presentations on four
Following these chapters are ruby, sapphire, amethyst, rubellite, different topics: (1) synthetic gem
three sections, each written by one of hyacinth, and a great number of materials, (2) diamond grading at the
the three authors, in which the other common and rare gemological SSEF Swiss Gemmological Institute,
author gives her own interpretation of terms, which have been placed in the (3) gem treatments, and (4) determina-
Schlumberger’s designs and some mineralogical rubbish bin, are tion of locality of origin for corundum.
insight into his inspirations and influ- included here. This volume, in con- The information on the CDs is
ences. The book finishes with a trast to that of de Fourestier, gives a presented in slideshow form, with
chronology of Schlumberger’s life, a reference for every entry, which is of still images and accompanying text.
catalogue of the exhibit, and a bibliog- great value for those desiring to Especially interesting for this review-
raphy. Beautiful and satisfying, this research a term further. er was the ruby discussion on the first
book is a “must have” for anyone who A very detailed comparison of both CD, which goes into considerable
appreciates creative and fanciful books by Dr. J. A. Mandarino (Cana- depth on the process of “healing” fis-
design. dian Mineralogist, Vol. 38, 2000, pp. sures and fractures with heat treat-
JANA E. MIYAHIRA-SMITH 768–771) showed that there are differ- ment. Macro- and microphotographs
Gemological Institute of America ences in the categorization of some supplement the information in both
Carlsbad, California obsolete terms by the two authors, tutorials.
and, not unexpectedly given the mag- Individuals using the GIA Dia-
nitude of these compilations, certain mond Grading system should keep in
rare terms are found in one but not in mind that the diamond grading sys-
the other. In agreement with Dr. tem discussed on the second CD is
OTHER BOOKS RECEIVED Mandarino, I recommend both glos- that of CIBJO, so there are noticeable
Glossary of Obsolete Mineral Names. saries to gemologists. Fortunately, differences in terminology and tech-
By Peter Bayliss, 235 pp., publ. by The both are very reasonably priced. nique. A few grammatical errors are
Mineralogical Record Inc., Tucson, Considering the staggering effort that present in both CDs, but they are not
AZ, 2000. US$32.00. Three years ago, goes into such compilations, it is distracting and they do not interfere
Dr. Anthony Kampf published a extremely unlikely that another com- with the delivery of information.
glowing review of J. de Fourestier’s petitor will surface within the next Both of these tutorials contain infor-
Glossary of Mineral Synonyms (Gems few decades and render the present mation that is timely and useful for
& Gemology, Summer 1999, pp. glossaries obsolete. the gemologist.
158–159), referring to it as “an essen- A.A. LEVINSON JANA E. MIYAHIRA-SMITH
tial reference.” He pointed out that University of Calgary Gemological Institute of America
this compilation of about 35,000 Calgary, Alberta, Canada Carlsbad, California

BOOK REVIEWS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 191

Gemological ABSTRACTS

2002
EDITOR COLORED STONES AND
A. A. Levinson ORGANIC MATERIALS
University of Calgary Akoya pearl culture in China. W. O’Connor and A. Wang, World
Calgary, Alberta, Canada Aquaculture, Vol. 32, No. 3, September 2001, pp. 18–20.
Harvesting of saltwater pearls in China extends back to 200 BC,
but only in the last 30–40 years have cultured saltwater pearls
REVIEW BOARD been farmed there. Production is mostly from the Akoya pearl
oyster Pinctada imbricata and is limited to the southern
Troy Blodgett provinces of Guangxi, Guangdong, and Hainan, which have suit-
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Carlsbad able water temperature. The first private saltwater cultured pearl
Anne M. Blumer farms were established in 1986. Production grew rapidly, and by
Bloomington, Illinois 1995 it reached ~15 tons/year. Production subsequently reached
Jo Ellen Cole ~20 tons/year, but recently it has decreased in both quality and
Vista, California quantity due to several factors (e.g., environmental degradation).
D. Darmour This article provides details of the Chinese Akoya pearl cul-
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Carlsbad turing and farming processes, which have many similarities to
those used in the production of freshwater cultured pearls.
R. A. Howie
Royal Holloway, University of London Unfortunately, the industry now faces a number of serious infra-
structure and environmental challenges. The existing farms are
Jeff Lewis aging, and there is little capital available for improvements in
University of New Orleans, Louisiana
facilities or techniques. Efforts to increase production have caused
Taijin Lu overcrowding and a further reduction in the quality of the cul-
GIA Research, Carlsbad tured pearls. JEC
Wendi M. Mayerson
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, New York Conjuring blue magic. T. Redgrave, Readers Digest (New
Kyaw Soe Moe Zealand), Vol. 158, No. 950, June 2001, pp. 40–48.
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Carlsbad Cultured mabe pearls from the abalone species Haliotis iris (paua
Joshua Sheby in the Maori language), which are unique to New Zealand, were
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, New York introduced to the world markets a decade ago. Highly acclaimed
James E. Shigley for their iridescent colors, they commonly show vivid blues,
GIA Research, Carlsbad greens, and purples. They are produced in five farms (one land-
based), located about 60 km east of Christchurch. Details of the
Russell Shor
operations at one farm are presented, including the gathering of
GIA, Carlsbad
Jana E. Miyahira-Smith This section is designed to provide as complete a record as
GIA Education, Carlsbad practical of the recent literature on gems and gemology.
Maha Tannous Articles are selected for abstracting solely at the discretion of
the section editor and his reviewers, and space limitations
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Carlsbad may require that we include only those articles that we feel
Rolf Tatje will be of greatest interest
to our readership.
Duisburg University, Germany
Lila Taylor Requests for reprints of articles abstracted must be
addressed to the author or publisher of the original material.
Santa Cruz, California
Paige Tullos The reviewer of each article is identified by his or her initials
at the end of each abstract. Guest reviewers are identified by
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Carlsbad their full names. Opinions expressed in an abstract belong to
Sharon Wakefield the abstrac-ter and in no way reflect the position of Gems &
Gemology or GIA.
Northwest Gem Lab, Boise, Idaho
© 2002 Gemological Institute of America

192 GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

paua, nucleation with a piece of plastic, harvesting after model is based on a direct genetic relationship between
two years, grading the mabe, and finally fashioning them faults and vein opal deposits in the near-surface sedimenta-
into jewelry. ry rocks of the Great Australian Basin. MT
Currently, 44,000 New Zealand cultured mabe pearls
(6–20 mm) are harvested annually; production is expected Edelsteine der Feldspatgruppe [Gemstones of the feldspar
to reach 100,000 a year by 2005. The great challenge is to group]. U. Henn, Gemmologie: Zeitschrift der Deut-
produce cultured whole (spherical) pearls from paua, schen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 50, No. 4,
something that has been attempted for decades without 2001, pp. 179–192 [in German with English abstract].
success. Michelle Walden This article provides a comprehensive and clearly struc-
tured description of the feldspar family. The basic miner-
Culturing blister pearls in abalones. P. V. Fankboner, alogical and gemological properties of each gem variety
Canadian Gemmologist, 2002, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. are described, and the varieties are assigned to the appro-
10–21. priate feldspar species. In addition, information is given on
The author discusses the process involved in producing the geographic sources of gem-quality feldspar, the color
gem-quality blister pearls in abalones. Abalones should be treatment of labradorite, imitations, and methods for the
kept near their normal environmental temperature range identification of feldspar minerals. Although this article
when removed from seawater for drilling and implanta- does not contain much new information, it does give a
tion. A semi-spherical nucleus (composed of any of a num- well-organized overview of this rather complicated miner-
ber of materials, such as plastic or mother-of-pearl) is al family and is a valuable reference. RT
tightly secured to the portion of the shell’s inner surface
that features the highest quality of shell nacre. This site is Edelsteine aus Sambia—Teil 3: Amethyst [Gemstones
usually the most inaccessible, but it can be reached with from Zambia—Part 3: Amethyst]. C. C. Milisenda,
the use of a diamond-core drill. Great care must be taken, V. Malango, and K. C. Taupitz, Gemmologie: Zeit-
however, since the curved surface of the shell could cause schrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesell-
the drill to grab and bounce off. schaft, Vol. 50, No. 3, 2001, pp. 137–152.
Conchiolin is secreted around the base of the nucleus Zambia is an important source of high-quality amethyst.
within several weeks of implantation. Nacre forms at the Commercial exploitation started in 1959 in the Kalomo-
outer borders of the conchiolin foundation and then Mapatizya field. Since then, hundreds of occurrences have
grows inward toward the nucleus. Last to be covered with been found in an area of approximately 750 km2. However,
new nacre is the top of the nucleus. Since the nucleus is only an area of about 15 ´ 2–3 km, which contains the
repeatedly covered by new layers of conchiolin and nacre, richest deposits, is being worked intensively. The deposits
the challenge is for the grower to remove the pearl at a formed about 200 million years ago, after the extrusion of
point just prior to the formation of a new layer of conchi- the Batoka Plateau Basalt, and can be divided into two
olin. A 0.37 mm minimum thickness of new nacre is nec- basic types. Type 1 deposits form long quartz veins (up to
essary to achieve a pearlescent quality. Finishing of the 2,000 m), but are only 10–60 cm wide. They contain most
blister pearl requires cutting it away from the abalone’s of the high-grade amethyst. Type 2 deposits are called
shell and backing it with mother-of-pearl. MT “stockworks” (large rock masses that contain many small
irregular veins and lenses of quartz and amethyst); these
Digging deep. S. Pecover, Australian Jeweller, October generally produce lower-quality amethyst.
2001, pp. 30–31. On average, only 5 kg of “high-grade” amethyst (fac-
Geologist and gemologist Simon Pecover has formulated a etable and good cabochon quality) and 35 kg of “low-grade”
geologic model to explain the formation of common opal amethyst (suitable for beads) are recovered from each ton of
in sedimentary rocks of the Great Australian Basin. It is ore. Production is from many small-scale open-pit mines.
hoped that this model will help uncover more opal The potential of the amethyst deposits appears to be sub-
deposits by providing an understanding of the relationship stantial, but underground mining is recommended to
between fault structures and opal veins. ensure more profitable operations. Gemological aspects of
A dynamic process is envisioned, one that involves rapid this material are presented, and it is noted that heat treat-
precipitation of opal in fault-generated hydraulic extension ment of Zambian amethyst does not produce citrine but
fractures (i.e., spaces in the rock forced apart by water under only greenish colors of little economic value. RT
pressure) by warm-to-hot waters that are supersaturated
with silica. Tectonic processes are thought to be responsible Gemmology of abalone shell and analysis on the origin of
for the formation of faults and associated breccia pipes. its iridescence. L. Li and J. Zhang, Journal of Gems
These form pathways for the silica-laden fluids, which move and Gemmology, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2001, pp. 1–5 [in
upward through the rock mass under hydraulic pressure. Chinese with English abstract].
Opal deposition and vein formation occur at sites of lower The gemological properties and cause of iridescence in
pressure in fissures opened up by the faulting. Hence, the abalone shells (Haliotis iris) from New Zealand were inves-

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 193

tigated mainly by polarization microscopy and scanning (presenting geochemical, petrological, and tectonic data in
electron microscopy. The gemological properties were support of each one) and the resulting types of emerald
compared to those obtained from nacre layers of both salt- deposits. A comprehensive list (compiled by Grundmann)
water and freshwater cultured pearls from China. is presented of emerald deposits worldwide, including sev-
The density of the abalone shell (2.61) was lower than eral small occurrences such as Val Vigezzo in the Italian
that of most of the mollusks used to produce saltwater and Alps and the recently discovered Finlayson Lake deposit in
freshwater cultured pearls (general range: 2.68–2.74). The Canada. This is followed by detailed descriptions of impor-
chemical composition and crystal structure of the abalone tant emerald deposits in Colombia (mainly Coscuez),
shells were very close to those of the nacre layers of the Brazil, and Asia (by Schwarz and Giuliani), as well as Africa
Chinese saltwater cultured pearls. However, the abalone and Madagascar (by J. Kanis). This section also includes
shells contained more K, Na, Mg, and Sr and less Mn than comments by Schwarz on the difficulty of obtaining accu-
was found in the Chinese freshwater cultured pearls. In rate emerald production data from the mines.
the abalone shells, aragonite occurs as minute (0.15–30 The remaining articles primarily address gemological
mm) spheres associated with interstitial voids. The topics. Schwarz discusses the origin of color, chemical
arrangement and size of these tiny spheres are similar to composition, types of inclusions, and determination of
those of the silica spheres found in opal. Therefore, the locality of origin using, as examples, emeralds from Jos
authors conclude that iridescence in the abalone shell (Nigeria), Malyshevo (Russia), Swat (Pakistan), Santa
from New Zealand most probably results from the diffrac- Terezinha de Goiás (Brazil), and the Cordillera Oriental
tion of light from layers of minute aragonite spheres, anal- (Colombia). K. Schmetzer and Schwarz consider the prob-
ogous to the cause of iridescence in opal. TL lem of distinguishing between emerald and other green
beryls. They maintain that “emeralds are yellowish green,
Investigation of manganese in salt- and freshwater pearls. green or bluish green natural or synthetic beryls whose
D. Habermann, A. Banerjee, J. Meijer, and A. absorption spectra show distinct chrome and/or vanadium
Stephan, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in bands in the red and blue-violet area of the spectrum.” L.
Physics Research B, Vol. 181, 2001, pp. 739–743. Kiefert reviews the controversial matter of fracture filling
Several advanced analytical techniques were used to study and its implications, and Schmetzer traces the history of
Chinese freshwater tissue-nucleated cultured pearls, nat- the various emerald synthesis techniques and explains
ural freshwater pearls from the Mississippi River, and nat- how synthetic emeralds are identified. The volume con-
ural saltwater pearls from the Persian Gulf and the South cludes with discussions by M. Zachovay on how emeralds
Pacific. Thin sections of these samples were analyzed by are priced and by K. Fischer on the emerald cut.
micro-PIXE, as well as by cathodoluminescence micros- As usual, this edition of extraLapis contains numerous
copy and spectroscopy; sawn half-samples were used for diagrams and sketches and is lavishly illustrated, includ-
electron spin resonance measurements. ing a fascinating photograph of small snail shells from
The various pearls could be distinguished by their Colombia fossilized by—believe it or not—emerald.
manganese contents, cathodoluminescence features, and RT
the relative abundance of aragonite and calcite. The
Chinese freshwater tissue-nucleated cultured pearls con- Supply and demand. Australian Jeweller, October 2001,
tained domains (regions in the crystal structure) of calcite pp. 24–25, 29.
that emit orange Mn2+ cathodoluminescence; these char- The Australian opal industry, which produces 95% of the
acteristics are almost absent from Mississippi River nat- world’s opal supply, is currently facing a number of prob-
ural freshwater pearls. The freshwater samples contained lems. Production has decreased by about 50% since 1992,
relatively high concentrations of Mn (up to 1,100 ppm) while mining costs have doubled and only a few new
compared to the saltwater pearls (<1 ppm). MT fields have been discovered. Because of taxation issues,
some miners have engaged in a cash economy, further
Smaragde der Welt (Emeralds of the World). extraLapis, reducing the opal’s value. Ironically, opal prices have not
No. 21, 2001, 96 pp. increased along with the diminished supply because there
This issue in the extraLapis series is devoted to emeralds have been fewer buyers. This combination of factors has
(an earlier issue of extraLapis, No. 1 of 1991, also featured resulted in a weak and fragmented industry, but now the
this mineral). The volume starts with the story of “The opal community (led by the Australian Jewellery and
Ring of Polykrates,” first told by early Greek historian Gemstone Industry Council and the government) is work-
Herodotus. Then, C. Behmenburg discusses the origin of ing together to reverse the trend.
the words emerald and beryl, and their history and uses. The reduction in supply has been the catalyst for
R. Hochleitner reviews the mineralogy of beryl and its extensive research on the genesis of opal. Solving the mys-
varieties, including trapiche and cat’s-eye emeralds. D. tery of the geologic process of opal formation and deposi-
Schwarz, G. Giuliani, G. Grundmann, and M. Glas discuss tion is an important step in resolving the supply crisis.
the main theories on the formation of natural emeralds Once an increased supply is assured, an increase in

194 GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

demand will certainly follow. Although cracking and craz- 8% of the total value of exports. Similarly, diamonds
ing affect a small percentage of Australian opal, education account for <0.1% of the country’s labor force. This year,
should help alleviate their negative impact. a new set of regulations giving the state much greater con-
Anh Nguyen trol over resources and giving advantage to local cutting
operations will be introduced into its parliament.
The paper concludes that diamonds do play an impor-
DIAMONDS tant and positive role in the economic growth of these
Diamonds: Forever or for good? The economic impact of three countries, though their benefits are not without
diamonds in southern Africa. R. Hazleton. controversy and are subject to some reforms. RS
Occasional Paper No. 3 of Partnership Africa
Canada’s Diamonds and Human Security Project, Diamonds: The real story. A. Cockburn, National
2002. Available at www.partnershipafricacanada.org. Geographic, Vol. 201, No. 3, March 2002, pp. 2–35.
and Mazal U’Bracha, No. 145, May 2002, pp. 20 –56 This cover story is a beautifully photographed, if some-
(passim). what long and tortuous, account of the diamond world,
The furor over “conflict diamonds,” which have pro- both the beneficial and the bad.
longed wars in Angola, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic The article opens with a tale of a diamond buyer in
Republic of the Congo, also has highlighted the positive Lunda Sul, Angola, describing how he evaluates rough dia-
role that diamonds play in the development of Botswana, monds and how they are hard-won by garimpeiros (diggers)
Namibia, and South Africa. This paper analyzes that role from the red clay of the mining area nearby. From there,
and how it relates to De Beers. the story brings in De Beers and describes the diamond
Botswana, the world’s largest diamond producer by industry as (p. 12) an “intricate and close-knit worldwide
value, earned US$1.9 billion (~33% of GDP) from dia- diamond network that operates in some respects on a vast
mond mining operations that produced 24.65 million industrial scale [De Beers’s mines] and in others like a
carats (Mct) in 2000. These operations are run by medieval guild.” The author reports that 120 million carats
Debswana, a 50 –50 venture between De Beers and the were mined worldwide last year, with a value of $7 billion.
federal government. Ultimately, the Botswana govern- The vast industrial scale includes one of the world’s
ment receives 70% of the profits from additional taxes and largest diamond mines, Jwaneng, operated by De Beers in
royalties. Although 85% of the country’s foreign revenues Botswana. De Beers maintains security so tight that
are derived from diamonds, efforts to generate employ- workers (and visitors as well) are not allowed to reach
ment and added value though diamond cutting have met down and touch the ground. Although De Beers now has
with only modest success. Nevertheless, as a result of dia- a number of competitors, the company is still living with
mond mining, and a stable and responsible government, U.S. anti-trust litigation and the accusations that it
Botswana has achieved a higher average annual growth manipulates diamond prices to an artificially high level.
rate (9.2%) than any other country in the world over the The next section follows the trail of the 265.82 ct dia-
past 30 years. Mr. Hazleton notes that not all have bene- mond found in 2000 near Mbuji Mayi (the “diamond cap-
fited from this prosperity, however, with a third of the ital” of the Democratic Republic of the Congo), from the
country subsisting on less than $1 per day. machinations of a local dealer, Alphonse Ngoyi Kasanji, to
Namibia also has a 50 –50 venture with De Beers, a dealer in Tel Aviv, weaving in then-ruler Laurent
Namdeb, which controls the declining shoreline deposits Kabila’s quest for money to pay for an offensive against the
and is predominant in offshore diamond mining. Presently, rebels. The diamond ultimately went to New York dealer
Namdeb is the country’s largest taxpayer and foreign William Goldberg for $8 million, less than half of Kasanji’s
exchange generator, as well as its second-largest employer. original asking price.
Namdeb produced 1.3 Mct worth US$409 million—or The article also focuses on the brutal civil wars in
80% of Namibia’s diamond output—in 2000. Diamonds Africa, and how diamonds have played a role in sustaining
constitute 13% of GDP. The fact that Namibia’s diamond them. The war in Sierra Leone, with its excessive cruelty,
production is much smaller than Botswana’s and its comes under particular scrutiny. Global Witness, a British-
onshore deposits are close to depletion, raises the prospect based non-governmental organization, first brought the
of high unemployment among miners in the future. problem to light in 1998, eventually forcing De Beers and
South African society is still attempting to redress the the rest of the diamond industry to confront the problem.
income disparities remaining from its apartheid system: The last section of the article moves to India, with its
53% of the population continues to live in “third world” history of diamond lore dating back several millennia.
conditions. Life expectancy has declined, largely because Starting from a group of Jains just 40 years ago, modern
of the high incidence of AIDS. The country is the world’s India has developed the world’s largest diamond cutting
third-largest diamond producer by value (obtained from industry. India’s industry is built on a cheap labor force that
~11 Mct), but diamonds account for <1% of both the GDP is able to polish economically many diamonds that would
and total government revenues; however, they constitute otherwise have been classified as industrials. RS

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 195

A discussion on the origin of irregular shapes of type II whether both took place in a liquid environment). Any the-
diamonds. I. Sunagawa, Journal of Gemmology, ory must explain a disparate group of observations, such as
Vol. 27, No. 7, 2001, pp. 417–425. the formation of flat-faced crystals in eclogites, the occur-
Type II rough diamonds characteristically have irregular or rence of morphological features such as polygonal pits and
flattened shapes and do not show crystallographic faces, microlamellar textures, and the formation of rounded forms
whereas type I rough diamonds normally have octahedral (dodecahedroids, octahedroids, and hexahedroids).
or rounded dodecahedral morphologies. Although the type Based mainly on the works of A. A. Kukharenko and
II diamonds originally had shapes similar to those of type his macroscopic classification of growth forms, dissolu-
I diamonds, they were fractured during ascent from great tion forms, and regeneration forms, the authors attempt to
depths within the Earth. While both types experience sim- establish differences between the morphology of inferred
ilar amounts of stress during their transport to the surface, growth and dissolution features on a submicroscopic level
the absence of nitrogen from type II diamonds makes them by examining over 1,300 crystals with a scanning electron
physically weaker than type I diamonds. The irregular microscope. They give detailed descriptions of four exem-
shape of type II diamonds correlates to a large proportion of plary crystals and their morphological features. From this,
fancy-cut stones. This explains why many of the diamonds they conclude that it still is not possible to answer two
subjected to General Electric’s high pressure/high temper- fundamental questions: which processes are responsible
ature color enhancement process are cut in fancy shapes. for the occurrence of rounded forms, and whether flat-
AAL faced or rounded forms are primary. However, they are
able to demonstrate that certain morphological features
Of judgment and cunning work. Conflict diamonds and can be attributed to growth or dissolution. The surface
the implications for Canada. I. Smillie, Inter- morphology also provides evidence that diamond forma-
national Journal, Vol. 56, No. 4, Autumn 2001, pp. tion processes can be quite complex and are influenced
579–594. not only by heat and pressure, but also by other factors
Diamond traders cared little about the geographic origin such as carbon from external sources (methane) and cyclic
of their stones until the conflict diamond issue surfaced changes of growth and dissolution. RT
in the late 1990s. While the news media picked up on this
story, the diamond industry devised a system to require Nitrogen distribution in diamonds from the kimberlite
diamond producers to certify rough diamonds at their pipe No. 50 at Fuxian in eastern China: A CL and
source and to insure they come from legitimate channels. FTIR study. F.-X. Lu, M.-H. Chen, J.-R. Di, and J.-P.
Also, Congressmen Tony Hall and Frank Woolf intro- Zheng, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth. Part A:
duced the Clean Diamonds Act, which would require Solid Earth and Geodesy, Vol. 26, No. 9–10, 2001,
such certificates on any diamond imported into the U.S. pp. 773–780.
At a meeting in Kimberley, South Africa, in May 2000, Cathodoluminescence (CL) and FTIR spectroscopy were
representatives from diamond producing, processing, and used to study the internal structure, variable nitrogen con-
consuming nations convened to adopt a workable certifi- tents, and nitrogen aggregation states in diamonds from
cation system, which became known as the Kimberley Fuxian, Liaoning Province, China. Single-stage growth,
Process. However, the Kimberley Process has been com- multi-stage complex growth, and a rare agate-like structure
promised by delays, inaction, and the shortcomings of the were identified; most of the diamonds showed complex
proposals themselves, which nongovernmental organiza- growth histories. Diamonds with bright blue CL had higher
tions (NGOs) believe are inadequate to stop traffic in con- nitrogen contents than those with dark green or green-blue
flict diamonds. CL. One diamond, a 0.26 ct brown octahedron with evi-
For Canada, a new major diamond producer, such dence of at least four growth stages, had nitrogen contents
inadequate regulation can create opportunities for crimi- varying from 244 to 679 ppm. Sharp increases and decreases
nals to launder conflict goods through the “clean” of nitrogen at the growth-stage boundaries imply different
Canadian pipeline. The article concludes by urging the conditions during crystallization. Before 1.3–1.4 billion
Canadian parliament to adopt legislation similar to the years, unstable conditions produced a rapid rate of growth,
Clean Diamonds Act proposed in the U.S. RS whereas after that time stable conditions corresponded to a
slower growth rate and enhanced fluid activity. RAH
Morphology of diamonds as a possible indicator of their
genesis. M. D. Evdokimov, M. Y. Ladygina, and A.
R. Nesterov, Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, GEM LOCALITIES
Abhandlungen, Vol. 176, No. 2, 2001, pp. 153–177. “Desert Ebony.” Ein großer schwarzer Opal aus dem
This article summarizes the basic arguments in the 200- Virgin Valley, Nevada (“Desert Ebony.” A large
year-old scientific debate as to whether a relationship exists black opal from Virgin Valley, Nevada). P. C. Huber,
between the morphology of diamond crystals (i.e., flat vs. Lapis, Vol. 27, No. 1, 2002, pp. 21–23 [in German].
rounded faces) and the conditions under which they crys- Virgin Valley, the most important opal deposit in the United
tallized (i.e., a growth vs. dissolution environment, and States, is located in a very remote desert region of Nevada.

196 GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

About 1.5 million years ago, huge conifer forests were cov- The colorless quartz formed first, under reducing con-
ered by volcanic ashes and tuffs and subsequently petrified, ditions (corroborated by the presence of pyrite, which
partly as gem-quality opal. Several commercial mines oper- contains Fe2+), at T~600°C and P=1.0–1.5 kbar. Amethyst
ate in the area, but for a moderate fee amateur collectors can formed later, under oxidizing conditions (corroborated by
also search for opals. The author describes his trip to Virgin the presence of hematite, with Fe3+), at T=280°–400°C
Valley, the landscape, the natural history of the area, living and P~1 kbar. During the crystallization of the amethyst,
and mining conditions, and his own gem-digging activities. Fe3+ was incorporated into the quartz structure, which
At the Rainbow Ridge mine, he found a large (1,700 ct) black resulted in the formation of color centers. KSM
opal, which he named “Desert Ebony.” RT
Gem-bearing basaltic volcanism, Barrington, New South
Elba. extraLapis No. 20, 2001, 96 pp. [in German]. Wales: Cenozoic evolution, based on basalt K-Ar
This issue in the special extraLapis series was written by ages and zircon fission track and U-Pb isotope dat-
Dr. Federico Pezzotta, and is based on the book Minerali ing. F. L. Sutherland and C. M. Fanning, Australian
dell’isola d’Elba [Minerals of the Island of Elba] (P. Orlandi Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 48, No. 2, 2001, pp.
and F. Pezzotta, Edizioni Novecento Grafico, Bergamo, Italy, 221–237.
1996). Along with historical and geologic information, and Gem-quality sapphire, ruby, and zircon are found in
mineralogical data on over 200 species, the book provides drainages of the Barrington volcano, 100 km north-north-
detailed descriptions of the island’s two main products: ores east of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia. This arti-
of copper and iron, and gem minerals. The ore deposits cle integrates new age data with previously published
along the eastern coast of Elba have been exploited since at information on the geologic history of the volcano and
least the 6th century BC; they are famous for their magnif- the origin of the gems. The volcano was formed by mul-
icent pyrite and hematite crystals. The gem minerals are tiple basaltic eruptions that occurred intermittently
found in pegmatites (“filoni”) of the Monte Capanne plu- between 59 and 4–5 million years (My) ago. The volcan-
tonic intrusion. These contain tourmaline, beryls (goshen- ism evolved in stages as the lithosphere overran a series
ite, aquamarine, morganite), spessartine, topaz, apatite, of magmatic plumes.
petalite, and hambergite. The gem minerals form beautiful The gem-bearing eruptions, associated with quieter
crystals but are mostly rather small; the largest known eruptive periods, occurred at 57, 43, 38, 28, and 5–4 My. Two
morganite is 5 cm across, and the largest tourmaline is <10 main periods of zircon crystallization occurred between
cm. Although treasured by collectors of crystal specimens, 60–50 My and 46–45 My. Zircon and sapphire are attributed
most are heavily included and seldom faceted. to crystallization from minor felsic melts (igneous origin,
Elba is the largest tourmaline occurrence in Europe. indicated by corrosive etching) derived from incipient melt-
The tourmalines occur in a wide range of colors, the typi- ing of amphibole-enriched mantle rock. Ruby is believed to
cal variety being color-zoned elbaite with black termina- have formed from metamorphosed ultramafic bodies at
tions. Most of the tourmalines are schorl or elbaite, but depth. Based on structural and seismic studies of the mantle
there is also dravite, foitite, and rossmanite, often as zones under eastern Australia, which is characterized by a subdued
within the same crystal. While most specimens on the thermal profile, there is little prospect of further gem-bearing
market and in collections originated from such famous old eruptions in this area in the future. KSM
pegmatites as Catri, Fonte del Prete, Grotta d’Oggi, San
Piero, or San Silvestro, recent research and collecting Mineral and fluid inclusion study of emeralds from the
activities have shown that there are still a large number of Lake Manyara and Sumbawanga deposits, Tanzania.
potentially gem-bearing “filoni” to be discovered. RT I. Moroz, Y. Vapnik, I. Eliezri, and M. Roth, Journal
of African Earth Sciences, Vol. 33, No. 2, 2001, pp.
A fluid inclusion study of an amethyst deposit in the 377–390.
Cretaceous Kyongsang Basin, South Korea. K. H. The solid and fluid inclusions in emeralds from two
Yang, S. H. Yun, and J. D. Lee, Mineralogical Tanzanian deposits, Lake Manyara and Sumbawanga, were
Magazine, Vol. 65, No. 4, 2001, pp. 477–487. studied to determine the mineralogy of the solids, the
Fluid inclusions in high-quality amethysts and colorless chemical nature of the liquids and gases, and the pressure
quartz from granitic rocks at Eonyang, Korea, were studied and temperature conditions under which the emeralds
to determine the geologic conditions under which they formed. Microthermometry and laser Raman microspec-
formed. Three types of inclusions are recognized. Type I are trometry were the primary techniques employed.
liquid-rich, low-salinity inclusions that contain a liquid- Magnesite, Mg-calcite, aragonite, dolomite, calcite,
vapor mixture with or without daughter minerals (e.g., cal- nahcolite, quartz, and chrysoberyl were identified in emer-
cite) but no halite. Type II inclusions are liquid-rich and alds from Lake Manyara; the fluids were carbonate-rich
contain halite, calcite, and various opaque minerals; based and contained ~6 wt.% NaCl. Phenakite, euclase, bertran-
on petrographic evidence, these formed after Type I and dite, and helvite were identified in emeralds from
before Type III inclusions. Type III inclusions contain liquid Sumbawanga; the fluids were CaCl2-rich, and contained up
and gaseous CO2 (>50 vol.%), but no solids. to 17 wt.% NaCl.

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 197

 The inclusion data suggest the Lake Manyara emeralds (Borneo), Malaysia. From an annual production of around
formed at temperatures of 370°–470°C and pressures of 3–7 150,000 tonnes of subbituminous coal comes 3,000–7,500
kbar. The Sumbawanga emeralds formed at lower tempera- tonnes of amber. The amber and the coal are the remains
tures and pressures: 220°–300°C and 0.7–3.0 kbar. LT of tropical deciduous trees (Dipterocarpaceae) and occur in
the Miocene Nyalau Formation.
Primary deposits in Sri Lanka will reinvigorate trade, gem The amber is found as irregular, often loaf-like, pieces
sector notes. J. Henricus, Jewellery News Asia, No. within the coal seams—frequently in circular groups (i.e.,
206, October 2001, pp. 55–56, 58–60. around the bases of the former trees). Much of the mater-
Gem production in Sri Lanka has declined in recent years as ial shows distinct flow structures. The color is dark
the traditional alluvial (secondary) deposits have been (brown to black), and only smaller pieces are translucent
depleted and new alluvial deposits become increasingly dif- and yellow to brown. The amber shows intense blue fluo-
ficult to find. Yet this trend may be reversed as new in-situ rescence and only rarely contains fossil inclusions (cen-
(primary) gem deposits are being discovered with the help of tipedes, spiders, and various insects). Unlike Baltic amber,
modern satellite technology in areas not previously known the material from Sarawak is soluble in turpentine and
to have gem occurrences. These primary deposits reported- benzine and melts above 200°C. Malaysian artists, who
ly are hosted by skarns (carbonate rocks, such as limestone, previously had worked only in wood, are now carving
affected by contact metamorphism accompanied by the objects in amber. RT
introduction of additional elements). One of the new areas,
near Kataragama in the extreme southeastern part of the Tanzanite production to start at Merelani. H. Raats, SA
island, is mainly producing blue sapphires, some of fine Mining, January 2002, pp. 16–18.
quality, along with other gems (including yellow and Based on new geologic findings at its Merelani tanzanite
orange-pink sapphire, garnet, and red spinel). Although project in northern Tanzania, African Gem Resources
well-formed crystals have been found, they typically con- (Afgem) is implementing a revised mine plan. Core drilling
tain abundant inclusions and cracks. Both traditional hand has established that the ore body extends to a depth of at
methods and mechanized mining are being used, with care- least 300 m, and the company is currently developing three
ful attention to environmental matters. JEC state-of-the-art mining shafts to recover the ore from these
depths; the shafts are expected to be completed between
Quaternary geology and sapphire deposits from the Bo July and December 2002. The plan also includes a new ore
Phloi gem field, Kanchanaburi Province, Western extraction method. When completed and in operation,
Thailand. M. Choowong, Journal of Asian Earth which is expected to be in the latter part of 2002, Afgem
Sciences, Vol. 20, No. 2, 2002, pp. 119–125. believes that its tanzanite project will be the world’s most
Sedimentological analysis of the sapphire-bearing gravels modern colored stone mining facility.
of the Bo Phloi District (30 km north of Kanchanaburi, The company has tanzanite cutting and polishing facil-
Thailand) was conducted in an attempt to understand the ities in Johannesburg and Bangkok, but it plans to develop
paleo-environment of sapphire deposition. From the exam- similar facilities in Tanzania. It will market the top quali-
ination of test pits excavated specifically for this purpose, ty of its polished production (about 10% of the volume)
and open-cuts created by sapphire miners, the author was under the brand name “Tanzanite Foundation.” MT
able to construct stratigraphic sequences of the sediments
for three deposits within the Bo Phloi district. Ti-Fe mineral inclusions in star sapphires from Thailand.
Essentially, each sequence begins with basalt or weath- S. Saminpanya, Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 21,
ered basalt at the base, grading upward into sapphire-bearing No. 3, 2001, pp. 125–128.
coarse gravel and then into successively finer sediments An examination of exsolved needles and mineral inclusions
toward the top. At the Ban Chong Dan deposit, this in star sapphires from Bang Kacha [also spelled Bang-kha-
sequence is approximately 10 m thick. The author con- cha], Chanthaburi Province, Thailand, was conducted using
cludes that the sediments are channel-fill deposits laid down electron microprobe and wavelength-dispersive spectrome-
by a braided river, where sapphires (along with spinel) were try with the techniques of element mapping and spot analy-
eroded from the underlying basalts and then redeposited ses. Rather than being rutile or hematite, as previously
within the coarser gravels of the channel. No gemological or reported, the exsolved “needles” consisted of a mineral of
production data are provided. Keith A. Mychaluk the ilmenite-hematite series, ilmenite, or a spinel; other
opaque inclusions were magnetite-hercynite. RAH
Der Sarawak-Bernstein (Amber in Sarawak). T. Thiele-
mann, A. Arleth, M. Arleth, D. Johari, E. Ong, and Zwölftstrahliger Sternsaphir aus Bang-kha-cha, Thailand
D. Kelter, Zeitschrift für Angewandte Geologie, (Twelve-rayed star sapphire from Bang-kha-cha,
Vol. 47, No. 3/4, 2001, pp. 212–217 [in German Thailand). K. Schmetzer and M. Glas, Lapis, Vol.
with English abstract]. 26, No. 11, 2001, pp. 40–42, 54 [in German].
In 1987, one of the world’s largest amber deposits was dis- After a brief overview of some basic facts concerning
covered in the Merit Pila open-pit coal mine in Sarawak asterism, the characteristics of black star sapphires from

198 GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

Thailand are described. As in star corundums from other determined, and local properties of the paramagnetic
sources, these stars were found to be diffraction phenom- impurities were identified. Detailed analysis of the EPR
ena created by needles or lamellae of rutile or hematite- spectra (both before and after annealing) and data from
ilmenite. These inclusions can be oriented either parallel optical absorption spectra show that in these synthetic
or perpendicular to the second-order prism faces. beryls, the blue-green color is caused by Cu2+ and the pur-
Six-rayed star sapphires from Bang-kha-cha [also ple is due to Mn3+. Alethea Inns
spelled Bang Kacha] show bluish white or, less common-
ly, “golden” yellow stars. The bluish white stars are Non-destructive NIR-FT-Raman analyses in practice. Part
caused by Ti-bearing hematite (as are similar black stars II. Analyses of “jumping” crystals, photosensitive
from Australia), whereas the nature of the mineral(s) form- crystals and gems. G. N. Andreev, B. Schrader, R.
ing the yellow stars is unknown. In the bluish white stars, Boese, P. Rademacher, and L. von Cranach, Fresenius
the band of light (chatoyancy) can be oriented both paral- Journal of Analytical Chemistry, 2001, Vol. 371, pp.
lel and perpendicular to the second-order prisms, but they 1018–1022.
are always parallel to these prisms in the yellow stars. This article explores the benefits of near-infrared Fourier-
Rarely, both colors of stars are combined in the same transform (NIR FT) Raman spectroscopy, as compared to
specimen and form 12-rayed star sapphires. The authors classical Raman spectroscopy, which uses excitation in
studied nine such sapphires and found that the bluish the visible range of the spectrum with a focused beam. FT-
white stars were always oriented perpendicular to the Raman spectroscopy has been used previously for the
prism faces, whereas the yellow stars were parallel to investigation of organic gems (e.g., corals, pearls, ivory,
these faces. The article is illustrated with four excellent and amber) because it avoids potential problems with
photographs and two diagrams, which make the rather overheating in the focal range. This article presents some
complicated phenomena easily understandable. RT applications of this technique to inorganic gems (e.g., the
distinctions between diamond and synthetic moissanite
or cubic zirconia). The authors also demonstrate the cor-
INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES relation between FT-Raman spectra and diamond clarity.
Complex pearl identification: New possibilities of the X- Alethea Inns
ray methods. O. Y. Yakushin, M. L. Osipov, and E.
V. Kozorezov, Gemological Bulletin, Publication of Raman spectroscopy—An introduction. M. I. Garland
the Gemological Society of Russia, No. 1, 2001, pp. and T. L. Haslett, Canadian Gemmologist, Vol. 22,
11–14. No. 2, 2001, pp. 46–61.
This article advocates that X-ray computed microtomogra- This article introduces two nondestructive, high-resolu-
phy analysis offers a faster, and more reliable and versatile, tion spectroscopy techniques, infrared (IR) and Raman,
technique for investigating the precise nature of pearls than that are increasingly important in gemology, with a com-
is available with current X-ray methods. According to the parison of the uses and advantages of each. IR measures
authors, X-ray microtomography can differentiate natural the absorption of infrared light by the sample, whereas
from cultured pearls or imitations, determine the thick- Raman spectroscopy measures the diffraction of visible
ness of the nacre, and recognize the location, size, and light. So that the reader can more fully understand IR and
other characteristics of the nucleus of both bead- and tis- Raman spectroscopy, the authors include a section on
sue-nucleated cultured pearls. It can also analyze pearls molecular behavior and crystalline vibrations, and
that are mounted in jewelry. The microtomographical describe some basic aspects of the instrumentation for
“picture” of the interior of a pearl is sufficiently distinctive both techniques.
to enable its use to identify specific pearls, especially those IR spectra are collected by a ratio known as the IR
that are particularly large or otherwise unique. transmission spectrum (the relationship between the light
Vladislav Dombrovskiy intensity as it passes through the material and the original
light intensity with no material present). Because the
EPR and optical spectroscopy of impurities in two syn- absorption pattern is specific to the molecular structure
thetic beryls. J.-M. Gaite, V. V. Izotov, S. I. Nikitin, for a particular material, databases of reference spectra can
and S. Y. Prosvirnin, Applied Magnetic Resonance, be compiled. Raman spectra are collected by exciting the
Vol. 20, No. 3, 2001, pp. 307–315. material, which then produces elastically scattered light,
Two hydrothermal synthetic beryls, purple and blue-green known as Rayleigh, and inelastically scattered light,
in color, were studied with electron paramagnetic reso- known as Raman. Filtering out the Rayleigh scattering,
nance (EPR) spectroscopy and optical spectroscopy to one is left with the Raman shift characteristic of that
determine the origin of the colors. The purple specimen material.
contained (in wt.%): Mn = 0.1, Fe = 0.31, and Cu = 1.55. Raman spectroscopy is used in gemology primarily for
The blue-green specimen contained (in wt.%): Mn = 0.003, the identification of inclusions, epoxy and other fillers,
Fe = 1.26, and Cu = 1.51. The valence states of these ele- and the gem material itself. The identification of solid and
ments and their positions in the beryl structure were fluid inclusions, especially those just a few microns in

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 199

size, can be essential for the determination of the geo- SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS
graphic or natural/synthetic origin of a gem.
Gemological characterization of gem-quality synthetic
IR spectroscopy, although effective because of the large
diamonds manufactured in Russia. Y. B. Shelemen-
database of reference spectra that is available, has a few
tev, O. Y. Gorbenko, and G. V. Saparin, Gemo-
drawbacks. In particular, it becomes problematic with
logical Bulletin, Publication of the Gemological
weak IR absorption—when small signals are difficult to
Society of Russia, No. 1, 2001, pp. 4–9 [in Russian
observe due to “background noise”—whereas Raman can
with English abstract].
more easily read lower-energy vibrations. However, fluo-
rescence can flood the detectors, thus scrambling the The authors studied 12 gem-quality Russian synthetic dia-
Raman signals. Also, until recently reference databases of monds—some rough crystals and some polished, and in a
Raman spectra did not exist, and a lack of a high-intensity variety of colors (brown, yellow, blue, and colorless)—to
monochromatic light source prevented the early use of determine the best methods for distinguishing these syn-
Raman spectroscopy. With the invention of lasers, the thetics from their natural counterparts. Conventional
pragmatic monochromatic light source was improved. gemological and instrumental methods (e.g., evaluation of
Coupled with other developments, Raman spectroscopy shape, color, color distribution, short- and long-wave
has become less expensive, easier to use, and a standard luminescence, and magnetic properties) do not always
technique for many gemological laboratories. JS yield unequivocal results, in which case more sophisticat-
ed instrumental methods such as infrared absorption spec-
troscopy and colored and spectral cathodoluminescence
(CL) must be employed. Especially valuable is CL, since
JEWELRY RETAILING the color, intensity, and surface distribution of cathodolu-
minescence are proven diagnostic features for distinguish-
Consumers’ product evaluation: A study of the primary
ing natural from synthetic diamonds.
evaluative criteria in the precious jewellery market
Vladislav Dombrovskiy
in the UK. A. Jamal and M. Goode, Journal of
Consumer Behaviour, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2001, pp.
140–155. Growth and characteristics of some new varieties of
When purchasing “precious” jewelry products, con- coloured quartz single crystals. V. S. Balitsky, I. B.
sumers in the United Kingdom generally preferred sub- Makhina, E. A. Marina, G. R. Rossman, T. Lu, and
jective attributes such as design, quality of materials, J. E. Shigley, High Pressure Research, Vol. 20, 2001,
workmanship, and comfort. However, those consumers pp. 219–227.
with a higher degree of sophistication also regarded objec- Growth conditions for producing four new varieties of syn-
tive criteria such as country of origin, brand name, infor- thetic quartz in single crystals are described. Two of these
mation provided, and variety as very important. synthetic varieties are very rare in nature: ametrine (bi-col-
This article reports the results of a mail survey taken to ored amethyst-citrine), and low-temperature phosphorous-
determine the nature and type of evaluation criteria used bearing pink quartz. Two varieties have no natural counter-
by an individual while purchasing a piece of “precious” parts: high-temperature Ni-bearing synthetic pink-violet
jewelry. It is based on a questionnaire sent to 500 individu- quartz, and low-temperature Cu-bearing synthetic “golden”
als on the mailing lists of three retail jewelers in the UK. pink quartz that resembles aventurine. With the exception
There were 117 responses: 87% were from women, 80% of of the high-temperature Ni-bearing variety, all currently are
whom were between the ages of 25–54 and 60% of whom grown in small quantities for use in the jewelry industry.
were married. The growth temperature for the synthetic ametrine
As a group, the respondents chose subjective attribut- (which requires the presence of iron as Fe3+ in the solution)
es—namely, quality of materials, design, and workman- is slightly higher (300°–370°C) than for both of the low-
ship—as the three most important factors in evaluating temperature pink quartz varieties (220°–320°C), but signif-
jewelry. Price, an objective criterion, was deemed less icantly lower than the Ni-variety (650°–780°C). The syn-
important than any of these factors, and the objective cri- thetic ametrine requires higher pressures (1.2–1.5 kb) and
teria of brand name and country of origin were nearly last. forms larger crystals (0.5–4.0 kg) than the other three vari-
Consumers with a low degree of brand consciousness rated eties (pressures generally < 0.3 kb; crystals 0.02–0.15 kg).
durability and comfort much more highly than the group The synthetic ametrine is grown from traditional alkaline
at large. However, more sophisticated consumers—those solutions, whereas the others are grown from nontradi-
with high brand consciousness and product knowledge— tional fluoride solutions. The Ni-bearing synthetic pink-
rated brand name, information, country of origin, and vari- violet quartz is grown as high-temperature b-quartz, but on
ety of styles more highly. cooling it converts to a-quartz. Details are given of addi-
The study concludes that jewelry brand managers tional conditions and variables required for the growth of
can develop products and strategies geared to audiences these synthetic colored quartz crystals (e.g., temperature
with differing degrees of sophistication and knowledge. gradients, nature of seed plates, radiation dosage, and
RS growth rates). Alethea Inns

200 GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002

Growth of the world’s largest sapphire crystals. C. P. the doubling of facet junctions, also can be applied in sep-
Khattak and F. Schmid, Journal of Crystal Growth, arating these colored synthetic moissanites from colored
Vol. 225, No. 2–4, 2001, pp. 572–579. diamonds. WMM
Commercial crystal growth processes require a tempera-
ture gradient built into the heat zone. However, a large
temperature gradient can cause defects during crystal
TREATMENTS
growth and subject the crystal to high stress during cool- Change of luminescence character of Ib diamonds with
ing. To grow large synthetic sapphire crystals with high HPHT treatment. H. Kanda and X. Jia, Diamond
purity for high-technology applications, in 1970 one of the and Related Materials, Vol. 10, Nos. 9–10, 2001,
authors (FS) and a colleague at the U.S. Army Materials and pp. 1665–1669.
Mechanics Research Center (AMMRC) developed a new Luminescence properties of synthetic diamonds grown in
technique for growing synthetic crystals from a melt— a pure iron solvent-catalyst were investigated before and
called the heat exchange method (HEM). After 30 years of after HPHT treatment. Cathodoluminescence (CL) and
improvements in the technique, AMMRC has synthesized photoluminescence (PL) spectra provide new insights
the world’s largest sapphire crystal (color not specified), a into as-grown crystal characteristics as well as changes in
boule that weighs 65 kg and is 34 cm in diameter. optically active centers due to heat treatment, nitrogen
In the HEM furnace, there are no built-in temperature concentration, and strain.
gradients (a feature of other crystal-growth processes, CL intensities varied between sectors of the as-grown
such as Czochralski), so the crucible, seed crystal, molten crystal samples. Subsequent HPHT treatment (6 GPa,
charge, and boule are in the same heat zone and there is 1800°–2000°C, 5 hours) of the as-grown crystals resulted
no movement of heat element, crucible, or crystal by the in dramatic changes in the CL spectra, although lumines-
heat exchanger. As a result, large crystals can be grown cence intensities remained sector dependent. All bands
without cracks and other defects. The high purity is recorded in the pre-heated crystals disappeared and addi-
achieved because of volatilization and segregation of the tional bands appeared, including N3, H3, 575 nm, and a
impurities during crystal growth. broad band centered around 430 nm (Band A). Analysis of
The sapphire boules display excellent symmetry and the PL spectra confirmed that the N3 band was stronger in
uniformity. They are cylindrical in profile with a flat sur- {111} sectors; H3 and 575 nm bands were stronger in {113}
face on top, and they exhibit continuous high transparency sectors. Mapping also revealed that the ratio of the zero-
from the ultraviolet, through the visible, to the mid-wave- phonon peaks of the H3 and 575 nm bands remained con-
length infrared 3–5 micrometers band. A schematic dia- stant throughout the crystal, which suggests a similar for-
gram is presented of the HEM furnace. Efforts are under mation process.
way to produce 50 cm diameter sapphire boules. TL The treated crystals displayed striated luminescence
patterns. This may be related to plastic deformation
Synthetic moissanite from Russia. L. Kiefert, K. Schmet- resulting from HPHT treatment because striations are par-
zer, and H. Hänni, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 27, allel to <110> directions. Also, luminescence was stronger
No. 8, 2001, pp. 471–481. around the periphery of the crystals where deformation
The gemological, chemical, and spectroscopic properties was larger, which indicates that plastic deformation
of five faceted (round brilliant) yellow, green (2), bluish enhances CL intensity. SW
green, and bluish brown synthetic moissanites grown in
Russia are described. The samples were created by the A new screening system for detecting HPHT-treated natur-
seeded growth of SiC by sublimation from the vapor al diamonds. K. Schmetzer, Goldschmiede Zeitung,
phase, known as the modified Lely technique. Four of the Vol. 100, No. 5, 2002, p. 88 [in German].
samples crystallized as the 6H SiC polytype (the same A Liechtenstein company (Gersan Establishment) has
polytype as the colorless synthetic moissanite grown in applied for an international patent (publication No. WO
the United States); the bluish brown sample had the 4H 02/06797A1; published January 24, 2002) for an instru-
polytype. The samples were all single crystals without any ment capable of detecting HPHT-treated diamonds. The
admixture of different polytypes. inventor is S. C. Lawson of the De Beers DTC Research
Unlike the colorless faceted synthetic moissanite Centre in Maidenhead, England. This article gives a
available commercially from the United States, in none of detailed description of the instrument and the theory of its
these Russian samples was the c-axis oriented perpendic- operation, based on disclosures and claims in the patent
ular to the table facet. This difference in orientation was application. For example, the instrument contains two dif-
evident in the orientation of the inclusions (mainly elon- ferent lasers (532 and 655 nm) and two spectrometers.
gated tubes), which were subparallel to the table. The Photoluminescence is measured at liquid nitrogen tem-
authors attribute the different colors of these synthetic perature, and a microprocessor determines whether or not
moissanites to varying amounts of nitrogen in the crystal the diamond has been treated based on the relative inten-
structure. Established techniques for separating colorless sities of certain emission lines. The instrument is
synthetic moissanites from colorless diamonds, such as portable, and because an analysis takes only 15–20 sec-

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002 201

onds, it is capable of screening a large number of samples. president of the Jewelers Security Alliance (JSA) that year.
The instrument can also distinguish between natural and Under Kennedy, the JSA has been particularly effective in
synthetic diamonds, and can recognize diamonds that five areas:
have been subjected to irradiation.
• Forging closer ties with law enforcement agencies
Exactly how this instrument can be used in the trade
to raise awareness of the industry and its needs.
is not discussed. Nor is there any indication as to whether
This includes a special task force within the FBI
it is, or will be, commercially available. [Editor’s note:
and Los Angeles Police Department to help thwart
This instrument should not be confused with two earli-
South American gangs involved in the theft of
er De Beers instruments, the DiamondSure™ and
gems and jewelry.
DiamondView™ (see Gems & Gemology, Fall 1996, pp.
• Political lobbying for tougher action against vio-
156–169), which are designed only to distinguish natur-
lent criminals.
al from synthetic diamonds.] AAL
• An intensive media campaign to increase aware-
ness of the severity of crimes against the jewelry
Ruby heat treatment and fracture repair. H. Hänni, Jew-
industry. Jewelry theft losses average close to
ellery News Asia, No. 207, November 2001, pp.
$300,000, while the average loss from a bank rob-
75–76.
bery is $3,000.
The heat treatment of ruby in a controlled atmosphere, or • Expanding crime prevention information in the
with the addition of a flux, has three possible objectives: form of alerts and bulletins. These include a
(1) to improve or change the original color (which is depen- Manual of Jewelry Security published in 1995, a
dent on the oxidizing or reducing nature of the heating security products directory, and an annual statisti-
atmosphere if iron provides the color transition); (2) to cal report on crimes against the industry.
increase transparency or clarity (e.g., by dissolving rutile • Technological improvements that can disseminate
silk); and (3) to increase mechanical stability (by artificial- alerts and other important information instanta-
ly healing fractures with the flux). Details of the proce- neously.
dures used, such as the chemical nature (borates and fluo-
rides) of the fluxes and methods by which the enhance- JSA membership has grown 118% since 1993, to near-
ments may be recognized (e.g., microscopic study of char- ly 19,000 in 2001. RS
acteristic flux residues and gas bubbles), are outlined and
photomicrographs of treated fissures are provided. A supply chain gem. D. L. Andrews, ID Systems, Vol. 21,
In gemological reports from the SSEF Swiss Gemmolo- No. 6, 2001, pp. 32–35.
gical Institute, of which the author is director, heat-treated Shane Co., a diamond retailer and e-tailer, is using supply
rubies are identified as such. In the case of a heat-treated chain management software from ScanData Systems to
ruby in which a glassy residue has been identified, the track, ship, and secure its products with 100% accuracy.
report would note: “With indications of thermal enhance- Each product undergoes a quality control check before
ment and artificial glassy residues in fissures.” The treat- reaching inventory. If it passes inspection, it is either
ment is also quantified with the terms minor, moderate, or assigned to an outgoing order or marked as available and
significant. JEM-S put in stock; if not, it is returned to the manufacturer.
Digital photos of the products are taken, and images are
associated with product records for further quality assur-
ance. Orders are reviewed for product availability and
MISCELLANEOUS processed accordingly. If items are not available, the orders
John J. Kennedy, JCK’s Person of the Year. W. G. Shuster, go on automatic hold. Completed orders are audited and
Jewelers’ Circular Keystone, Vol. 172, No. 12, De- invoices printed. ScanData sends billing authorization
cember 2001, pp. 60–62, 65. data, telling the system the items have been shipped and
Since 1993, the jewelry industry has seen a sharp drop in billed. A shipping label is generated, and electronic ship-
murders and other violent crimes, increased prosecution ment data are conveyed to carriers. The system generates
of criminals who prey on traveling salespeople, more fed- inventory status data and order status messages through-
eral funding for the FBI’s fight against thieves, and greater out the day to keep inventory levels updated. At the end
security and crime prevention information for jewelers of each business day, mass inventory is taken of the mer-
and law enforcement officials. Much of the credit for chandise, which is placed on mobile racks and then stored
these achievements goes to John J. Kennedy, who became in a vault. MT

202 GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2002