PART 1

OVERVIEW
In this part, students learn to explain the basic concept of interpreting, which
include, definition, the characteristics of interpreting that differs it from
translating, setting and constellation of interpreting in general. More over
students will learn to identify the types of interpreting that are implemented
in society.

Basic Interpreting 1
1.1 Definition of Interpreting
Pöchhacker (2004) states the conceptual roots of interpreting as follow.
Interpreting is regarded here as translational activity, as a special form of
‗Translation‘. (The capital initial is used to indicate that the word appears in its generic,
hyperonymic sense.) Interpreting is an ancient human practice which clearly predates the
invention of writing – and (written) translation. In many Indo-European languages, the
concept of interpreting is expressed by words whose etymology is largely autonomous
from that of (written) translation. Expressions in Germanic, Scandinavian and Slavic
languages denoting a person performing the activity of interpreting can be traced back to
Akkadian, the ancient Semitic language of Assyria and Babylonia, around 1900 BC (see
Vermeer 1992: 59). The Akkadian root targuma¯nu, via an etymological sideline from
Arabic, also gave rise to the ‗autonomous‘ English term for interpreter, dragoman.

Kade (1968) defined interpreting as a form of Translation in which:

– the source-language text is presented only once and thus cannot be reviewed or
replayed, and
– the target-language text is produced under time pressure, with little chance for
correction and revision.
Kade chose to label the semiotic entities involved in Translation as ‗texts‘ (» 7.1), for
which one could substitute expressions like ‗utterances‘ (in the broad sense), ‗acts of
discourse‘, or ‗messages‘, subject to an appropriate definition.

Interpreting is a form of Translation in which a first and final rendition in another

language is produced on the basis of a one-time presentation of an utterance in a
source language.

1.2 Interpreting as Translation

Since different scholars will define and characterize their object of study in accordance
with their particular aims, experiences and interests, the basic question regarding the
nature of Translation has drawn widely discrepant answers. To illustrate the spectrum of

Basic Interpreting 2
choice, let us take a look at four answers to the question ‗What is Translation?‘ and
consider their theoretical implications. Translation is:
(a) a process by which a spoken or written utterance takes place in one language which is
intended or presumed to convey the same meaning as a previously existing utterance
in another language (Rabin 1958)
(b) the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another(target),
whether the languages are in written or oral form . . . or whether one or both
languages are based on signs (Brislin 1976a)
(c) a situation-related and function-oriented complex series of acts for the production of a
target text, intended for addressees in another culture/ language, on the basis of a
given source text (Salevsky 1993)
(d) any utterance which is presented or regarded as a ‗translation‘ within a culture, on no
matter what grounds (Toury 1995)

Definition (a) foregrounds the defining relationship between the source and target
utterances and stipulates ‗sameness of meaning‘ as an essential ingredient. It also
introduces, albeit implicitly, human agents and attitudes in terms of ‗intentions‘ and
‗expectations‘. Definition (b) describes Translation as a process of ‗transfer‘ acting on
‗ideas‘ in the medium of ‗language‘. Definition (c) introduces a number of descriptive
features, such as ‗situation‘, ‗function‘, ‗text‘ and ‗culture‘, and stresses the target
orientation of the translational product. The target orientation is carried to the extreme in
definition (d), in which the theorist relinquishes any prescriptive authority and accepts as
Translation whatever is treated as such in a given community.
All four definitions accommodate interpreting, but each foregrounds different conceptual
dimensions. And whatever is stipulated as an essential feature of Translation (i.e. notions
like transfer, ideas, sameness, intention or culture) will carry over to our definition of
interpreting and will have to be accounted for in subsequent efforts at description and
explanation. We are free of course to formulate an altogether different definition of our
own, but it would seem foolish to reinvent the wheel of Translation in order to move on
with the study of interpreting. We could certainly mine the various definitions of
Translation for basic conceptual ingredients, such as

Basic Interpreting 3
– an activity consisting (mainly) in
– the production of utterances (texts) which are
– presumed to have a similar meaning and/or effect
– as previously existing utterances
– in another language and culture.

While Durban (2011) states the concept as follow.

Q: Translation, interpreting—what’s the difference?

A: Translators write, interpreters speak.

If you are working with written documents—a user manual for your German customers,
billboards for a sales campaign in Argentina, reports filed in Chinese by your new
subsidiary in Shanghai that you must read and understand—you need a translator.
If you want to interact with people in a foreign language on the spot—a lab tour with
Mexican visitors, a board meeting in Japan, a parent-teacher conference with a family
recently arrived from Somalia—you need an interpreter.

Futhermore, he emphasizes the characteristics of interpreter.

Interpreters are human bridges. They step in whenever people speaking different
languages need to communicate with each other. They are trained to carry ideas from one
language to another—accurately and efficiently. A professional interpreter is an
invaluable resource in any face-to-face negotiation, communicating your meaning and
intent to your customer, and vice versa.

At the UN you see interpreters working in glass booths. At your plant, they accompany
you and the trade delegation from Poland on the factory floor, relaying your message to
your visitors and
Interpreters theirnerves
have questions
ofback
steelto. Interpreters
you. In a hospital
listen they help ensure
to a message that language
in one patients
get access to the care they need, whatever their language. And in courts they play an
and relay the same information back in another language, almost instantaneously.
essential role in ensuring that justice is done.

Basic Interpreting 4
 Want to experience the stress yourself?
Take a microphone, turn on your TV and try to rephrase whatever the newscaster or
soap star is saying in real time. No lagging behind—you‘ll never catch up. And no
dangling sentences, please. Now imagine you are doing the same thing, but restating
the message in a different language. Don‘t even think of using a dictionary for words
you don‘t know: there‘s no time! A child‘s life may depend on you. A million-dollar
deal may be in the balance, or the success of a company‘s participation in an
international trade fair. These are just a handful of situations where a professional
interpreter makes all the difference.

Interpreters are bilingual, but that’s not all. They

know both the words and the culture behind the
words—in two or more languages.

Red alert! Untrained “bilinguals” are a major risk in an interpreting

situation. The reason is simple: bilinguals may speak two languages fluently, but lots of
people described as bilingual are not really that fluent or even accurate. Most
importantly, they are not necessarily good at moving information between two languages,
especially when the pressure is on. And if they identify with one of the speakers, they
might take sides, which can skew a critical exchange. Professional interpreters bring a
different approach and skill-set to the job. Familiar with different interpreting techniques,
they are trained to get your message across—accurately, smoothly, efficiently—and let
you know exactly what the other guys are saying, too.

Amateurs & volunteers? No thanks. Nine times out of ten, relying on well-
meaning but untrained volunteers is a huge waste of human and financial resources. In a
medical setting, using untrained relatives or staff can have catastrophic consequences. In

Basic Interpreting 5
police work, improper communication of an individual‘s rights can result in reversal of
sentences. In courts, innocent peoplehave been convicted and guilty parties set free due to
incompetent interpreting. Using non-professionals may also be against the law: several
states, among them California and New York, have forbidden the use of children as
interpreters in healthcare situations and in courtrooms.

While European Communities (2009) states some myths thoughts about translating and
interpreting in society. It also compares the difference between translating and
interpreting.
 „Translation and interpreting are the same thing.„ FALSE. Although translation
and interpreting have a lot in common, they are separate professions requiring
different skills and different types of training. You can be a good interpreter without
being a good translator, and vice versa.
 ‗To be an interpreter, you just need to know languages.‟ FALSE. Interpreting is a
profession. If you want to interpret anything more challenging than routine
conversations, you need to learn special techniques that cannot be improvised.
 „I know Portuguese and Finnish, so I can interpret into those languages.‟
FALSE. You can only interpret into a language if you know it perfectly. Ideally, it
should be your mother tongue. Interpreters must react and process information
quickly and put it clearly, eloquently and without too many ums and ahs.

1.3 Setting and Constellation

1.3.1 Inter-social and intra-social settings.
Some of the first mediated contacts between communities speaking different
languages will have served purpose of trading and exchanging goods, of ‗doing business‘
which would give us business interpreting as a ‗primeval‘ type of interpreting. In
one of the earliest publications discussing different type of interpreting, Henri van Hoof
(1962) mention liaison interpreting as a form of interpreting practiced mainly in
commercial negotiations. More than thirty years later, Gentile et al, (1996) took an
advantage of a generic meaning of ‗liaison‘, denoting the idea of ‗connecting‘ and

Basic Interpreting 6
‗linking up‘, and extended the term ‗liaison interpreting‘ to a variety of interpreting
setting across the inter-social vs. intra-social dimensions.
Where the representatives of different linguistic and cultural communities came
together with the aim of establishing and cultivating political relations, they will have
relied on mediators practicing what we usually called diplomatic interpreting. When
relations turn sour, or maybe before they were even pursued, armed conflict would have
necessitated mediated communication in military setting. Such military interpreting,
as in talks with allies, truce negotiations or interrogation of prisoners, thus bears a
historical relation to the diplomatic kind.
Following the establishment of institutions for the enforcement of laws and the
administration of justice, particularly in newly conquered or colonized territories,
interpreter were enlisted to ensured that even those not speaking the language of the
authorities could be help to account. Hence, court interpreting, for which specific
legal provision were enacted in sixteenth century Spain, is a classic example of
interpreting in an intra-social institutional context. In many jurisdictions, what is
commonly labeled ‗court interpreting‘ include tasks like the certified translation of
documents as well as interpreting in quasi-judicial and administrative hearings. One can
therefore distinguish between the broader notion of legal interpreting, or judicial

interpreting, and courtroom interpreting in its specific, prototypical setting.

One the principal of ‗equal access‘ came to be seen as overriding expectations of
linguistic proficiency, the intra-social dimensions of interpreting became increasingly for
significant. In the US, for instance legislation in the 1960s designed to give deaf person
equal access to the labor market gave a strong impetus to the development of interpreting
services for users of signed language. With the focus of such efforts at the ‗social
rehabilitation‘ of the deaf placed on employment training and education in general, sign
language interpreting in educational settings (educational interpreting) went to
become one of the most significant type of intra-social interpreting
It was only in the 1980s and 1990s, in the face of mounting communication
problems in public-sector institutions (health car, social services) that ‗interpreting in the
community‘ (community-based interpreting) acquired increasing visibility. Thus

Basic Interpreting 7
 community interpreting, also referred to as public service interpreting
(mainly in the UK) and cultural interpreting (in Canada), emerged as a wild new

field of interpreting practice, with healthcare interpreting (medical

interpreting, hospital interpreting) and legal interpreting as the most
significant institutional domains.
An interpreting type whose linkage to the intra–social sphere is less obvious in
media interpreting, or broadcast interpreting (often focused on TV
interpreting), which is essentially designed to make foreign-language broadcasting
content accessible to media users within socio-cultural community.
Some of the contexts for which there is historical evidence of the interpreting
function are illustrated in Figure 1.2 along the inter- to intra-social spectrum. Selected

Isolated contact institutionalized contacts

EXPEDITION
TRANSACTION
ADMINISTRATION
N
Exploration Trade/ Business
Warfare Military
Diplomacy
Conquest (Colonial) administration
Law & Justice
Missionary work Religious Services
Scientific/technical Cooperation
Public Services
Media

INTER ………………………………………………………………………….INTRA
Figure 1.2 Interpreting in different spheres of social interaction

setting are grouped under the catchwords ‘expeditions‘ (=isolated inter-social),

‗transaction‘ (=institutionalized inter-social) and ‗administration‘ (institutionalized intra-
social).

Basic Interpreting 8
1.3.2 Constellation of Interaction
In addition to the categorization of interpreting types by social context and
institutional setting, further significant distinction can be derived from the situational
constellation of interaction. I an early sociological analysis, R. Bruce W. Anderson
(1976/2002) modeled the prototypical constellation interpreting as three-party interaction,
with a (bilingual) interpreter assuming the pivotal mediating role between two
(monolingual) clients. This is commonly referred to as bilateral interpreting or

dialogue interpreting. Either term is closely associated, if not synonymous, with hat
was previously introduced as ‗liaison interpreting‟. All of this terms are in contrast
with interpreting in multilateral communication, as in conference attended by delegates
and representatives of various nations and institutions, hence conference
interpreting.

International intra-social /COMMUNITY

LIAISON/DIALOGUE
CONFERENCE

INTERPRETING

multilateral bilateral
professional roles professional roles individual vs professional
comparable status comparable status power differential
one-to-many face-to-face
monologic dialogic

Figure 1.3 Conceptual spectrum of interpreting

Figure 1.3 attempts to illustrate this dual spectrum, in which liaison/ dialogue
interpreting holds more of the middle ground, with reference to some characteristics
which are usually or typically associated with either end of the spectrum.

Basic Interpreting 9
1.3.3 Language modality
In most of the literature of the subject, the term ‗interpreting‘ is used generically
as implying the use of spoken languages. The more explicit term spoken-language

interpreting gained currency only with the increasing need for a distinction vis-à-vis
sign language interpreting, popularly known also as ‗interpreting for the deaf‘.
Since deaf and hearing-impaired people may actually rely on a variety of linguistic codes
in the visual rather than the acoustic medium, it is more accurate to speak of signed-

language interpreting (or visual language interpreting). Working from and

into such secondary (spoken-language-based) sign system is referred to as
transliteration, and sign language interpreters or transliterators will be used
depending on the language proficiency and preferences of the clients.
Interpreting into a signed language is sometimes referred to, loosely, as ‗signing‘
(‗voice-to-sign interpreting‘ or ‗sign-to-sign interpreting‘) as opposed to ‗voicing‘ or
‗voice-over interpreting‘ (sign-to-voice interpreting‘) A special modality is usd in
communication with the deaf-blind, who monitor a signed message, including
fingerspelling, by resting their hands on the signer hands (tactile interpreting).

1.4 Types of Interpreting

Modes of Interpreting: Simultaneous, Consecutive, & Sight Translation

Simultaneous interpreting is the rendering of one spoken language into

another when running renditions are needed at the same time as the English language
communication. The interpreter speaks virtually at the same time as the Limited English
proficiency (LEP) person. When done properly, it is a true and accurate interpretation of
one language to another, done without omissions or embellishments, so that the parties
can understand one another quickly. The simultaneous mode is used whenever

Basic Interpreting 10
participants, most often defendants, are playing a passive role in court proceedings such
as arraignments, hearings, or trials. The LEP speaker needs to hear what is being said but
is not required, at that particular stage of the proceedings, to speak herself. In order to
preserve the defendant‘s due process rights, everything spoken in open court must be
interpreted to her simultaneously. This enables the defendant to be truly present and take
an active part in her defense. In the simultaneous interpreting mode, the interpreter must
do several things at once:
• listen intently to whatever party is speaking
• accurately interpret from the source language to the target language
• be prepared to switch languages rapidly whenever the LEP party is directly
engaged in the procedure and consecutive interpreting is required

In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter waits until the speaker has

finished before rendering speech into another language. Consecutive interpreting is a true
and accurate interpretation of one language to another, spoken in brief sound bites
successively, without omissions or embellishments, so that the parties can understand
each other slowly and deliberately. The consecutive mode is used whenever LEP
participants are playing an active role — when they must speak or respond — during
examinations, cross-examinations, and other proceedings. Consecutive interpreting is
often used when parties are addressing a witness or defendant on the witness stand. In
legal settings, such as attorney/client or prosecutor/witness/victim interviews, the
consecutive mode is the preferred mode of interpreting, as it is in a question and answer
session. Consecutive interpreting should be used during police interviews of suspects
and/or witnesses or victims, especially during recorded interviews. The gaps in speech
between the parties allow for a clear and accurate transcript to be prepared if necessary
for further court proceedings. In the consecutive interpreting mode, the interpreter must:
• listen intently to whatever party is speaking
• be prepared to take notes to aid in recollection
• accurately interpret after the party has completed her statement.

Basic Interpreting 11
 Sight translation is the rendering of material written in one language into
spoken speech in another language. It is a true and accurate verbal translation of written
material into the spoken form so that the parties can understand what documents written
in foreign languages say. Sight translation is often used when LEP defendants are given
forms in court that are written in English, such as rights forms, plea forms, and probation
orders. It is also used when foreign-language documents such as birth certificates,
personal letters, and identity documents are presented in court. Recommended practice is
to afford the interpreter sufficient time to review the document‘s contents before
rendering it.When performing sight translation, the interpreter must:
• possess a wide vocabulary and knowledge of the specific type of document
presented
• have the ability to quickly scan and understand the main points of the document
• accurately interpret the document into its equivalent meaning in the target
language.

In accordance to

In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter takes turns with the other

speakers, as in a Q&A session. The client speaks, then stops. The interpreter steps in to
interpret, then stops. If long statements are made, the interpreter may take notes to ensure
accuracy. This is the format for interpreting by telephone, for many meetings, for some
medical consultations and for certain court proceedings. Electronic equipment
(microphones and headsets) may be necessary, depending on the size of the room.
Because of the stops and starts, such events will always take longer than usual—
up to twice as long. Be sure to factor this into your schedule.

Simultaneous interpreting is different. In this case, the speaker and the

interpreter talk at the same time, with the interpreter lagging a few words or seconds
behind the speaker. It‘s what you see at the UN, at international conferences and in many
courts. Normally the interpreters are some distance from the speaker (usually in

Basic Interpreting 12
soundproof booths) and you listen to them with wired-in headphones or pocket-sized
receivers that use a radio or infra-red frequency. Simultaneous interpreters may also use a
portable electronic system with microphones and headphones. This is particularly handy
when interpreting for a large group on a tour of, say, a noisy factory. When there is only
one listener, interpreters may dispense with equipment and simply whisper to the person.
Because simultaneous interpreting requires immense concentration, linguists
usually work in pairs, relieving each other at 15- to 30-minute intervals.

In sight translation, the interpreter orally translates a written document,

sometimes with little or no preparation. This is usually to relay key information and allow
a meeting or other session to proceed. In the legal system, sight translation may be
needed for trial preparation or to translate exhibits or documents submitted in foreign
languages. In a hospital, a patient may need essential information in a medical brochure
on surgical procedures. In a community care setting, critical documents can describe
program policies and legal rights.
Sight translation can pose a serious liability risk for a service organization that
has hired an interpreter:
• if patients sign consent forms for procedures or services they do not fully
understand.
• if patients receive medical instructions that they do not fully understand.

Moreover, Pochhacker (2004) explains in detail about the types of interpreter and
and its constellation In the 1920s, when transmission equipment was develop to enable
interpreters to work simultaneously, that it became meaningful to distinguish between
consecutive interpreting (after the source-language utterance) and simultaneous
interpreting (as the source-language text is being presented). Since consecutive
interpreting does not presuppose a particular duration of the original act of discourse, it
can be conceived of as a continuum which ranges from the rendition of utterances as
short as one word to the handling of entire speeches, or more or less lengthy portions
thereof ‗in one go‘ (Figure 1.4). Subject to the individual interpreter‘s working style –
and memory skills- and a number of situational variables (such as the presentation of

Basic Interpreting 13
slides), the consecutive interpretation of longer speeches usually involves note-taking as
developed by the pioneers of conference interpreting in the early twentieth century.

CONSECUTIVE INTERPRETING

Note-taking
Short ‘classic’
consecutive consecutive

Figure 1.4 Continuum of consecutive interpreting

Hence, consecutive interpreting with the use of systematic note-taking is

sometimes referred to as ‗classic‘ consecutive, in contrast to short consecutive without
notes, which usually implies a bidirectional mode in liaison constellation.
Where the interpreters works right next to one or no more than a couple of
listeners can he or she provide a rendition by whispered interpreting or ‗whispering‘,
which is in fact done not by whispering but a low voice. Nevertheless, simultaneous
interpreting with full technical equipment is so widely established today that the term
simultaneous interpreting (frequently abbreviated to SI) is often used as shorthand
for ‗spoken-language interpreting with the use of simultaneous interpreting equipment in
a sound-proof booth.
A special type of simultaneous interpreting is the rendition of a written text ―at
sight‘. Commonly known as ‗sight translation‟, this variant of simultaneous mode,
when practiced in real time for immediate use by an audience, would thus be labeled
more correctly as ‗sight interpreting‘

Basic Interpreting 14
 Figure 1.5 do not hold the same degree across language modalities. Signing (i.e.
voice-to-sign, sign-to-sign, or text-to-sign interpreting) is feasible in the simultaneous
mode without special equipment. In contrast, sign-to-voice interpreting may be
performed with or without a microphone or booth. The latter, though, applies only to
cases where a monologic source speech in sign language needs to be interpreted into
several (spoken) language, requiring the use of simultaneous interpreting equipment to
maintain separate channels. In text-to-sign interpreting, the interpreter may need to
alternate between reception (reading) and production (signing), thus bringing sight
translation closer to the (short) consecutive mode.

SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETING

signing SI from booth

with
transmission
equipment
Whispering Sight
(with portable interpreting
equipment)
‘voicing’
whispering

Figure 1.5 Forms of simultaneous interpreting

Basic Interpreting 15
 EXERCISES

1. Based on the theories you have read; please define the definition of interpreting with
your own word!

2. How you differentiate interpreting from translation? Please explain!

3. And then, in what ways are interpreting and translation similar?

4. ―Interpreters just need to know language.‖ Explain whether you agree or disagree with
the statement.

5. It Is said that business interpreting is ‗primeval‘ type of interpreting. Why is so?

6. ―Some types of interpreting cover intra-social dimension while others cover inter-
social.‖ What do intra-social and inter-social mean in interpreting context?

7. Explain the characteristics of simultaneous interpreting and consecutive interpreting. In

what way do they different one to another?

8. How can Sight Translation be categorize as one type of interpreting?

9. Consecutive interpreting sometimes deals with the note-taking activities during the
utterance. So, in what situation is the note-taking really important for interpreter in the
consecutive interpreting setting?

10. it is feasible to conduct simultaneous interpreting without special equipment in

signing. Why is so?

Basic Interpreting 16
REFERENCE

European Communities. 2009. Translation and interpreting: Languages in action. .

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

Durban, Chris. 2011. Interpreting Getting it Right. American Translators Association

National Association of Judiciary Interpreters & Translators. Modes of Interpreting:

Simultaneous, Consecutive, & Sight Translation. Retrieved December, 1st 2016.
courts.alaska.gov/language/modes.
Pochhaker, Franz. 2004. Introducing Interpreting Studies. Routledge: London and New
York.

Basic Interpreting 17
PART 2
OVERVIEW
In this part, student will learn to identify models of interpreting and as well
to analyze the cases in society based on each model.

Basic Interpreting 18
2.1 Levels of Modeling

Pochhacker (2004) explains about the levels of modeling in interpreting. In light

of the discussion on memes interpreting, which ended with references to the role of
interpreters in the history of intercultural relations, one could conceive of a broadly
anthropological model of interpreting and its role in the history of human civilization.
With less abstraction and historical depth, and a more specific focus on societal
structures, one would arrive at a socio-professional conception of interpreting; that is, a

antropological

socio-professional

institutional

interactional

textual

cognitive

neural

Figure 2.1 Levels of modeling

Basic Interpreting 19
model of interpreting as a profession in society, organization, parliaments or courts,
would highlights the institutional function of interpreting, while setting one‘s sights on a
particular type of communicative event, like a conference or interview, would foreground
of interactional aspect of interpreting as an activity taking place in and, at the same time,
shaping a particular situation. Concentrating on the text as the material instrument in
textual or discursive process, whereas an interest in the mental processes underlying
language use would give rise to cognitive models to interpreting. Finally, the material
substrate of mental processes can be targeted with model of cerebral organization and
brain activity at the most fundamental, neural level.
Bearing in mind that these seven levels of analysis are meant as variable focal
points rather than rigidly separable categories, they can be visualized as a set of
concentric circles, extending from the ‗outer‘ spheres of social context to a neuro-
cognitive core, or, more pointedly, from socio-cultures to synapses (Figure 2.1).

2.2 Socio-professional and Institutional Models

A socio-professional model which focuses on interpreting as a recognized
occupation in society was develop by Joseph Tseng (1992) with reference to conference
interpreting in the social context of Taiwan. The model describes four phases in the
process of professionalization, from ―market disorder‖ to professional autonomy (Figure
2.2)
Tseng models has been applied to the field of (spoken language) community
interpreting in various countries (e.g. Fenton 1993, Mikkelson,1999) as well as to the
profession of sign language interpreting in Great Britain (Pollitt 1997). In more general
terms, Uldis Ozolins (2000) has modeled different stages of interpreting service provision
with reference to key determinants of professionalization.
While these examples highlight the importance and potential of modeling the
phenomenon of interpreting in a broader socio-institutional dimension, interpreting
scholars to date have expended relatively little effort on models of interpreting in history,
society or in specific institutions. Rather, interpreting models tend to relate to the domain
of interaction, or much more, focus on the complexities of cognitive processing.

Basic Interpreting 20
 Phase I Market Disorder
Source of disturbance

Training
Institution
s

Source of cohesion

Consensus &
Phase II Commitment

Phase III
Training
Institution
Professional Association s
Code of
Ethics
Publicity
Admission

Clientele Public

Political Persuasion

Phase IV Legal Authorities

Protection and Licensure

(Professional Autonomy)

Figure 2.2. Tseng‘s model of the professionalization process (from Tseng, 1992)

Basic Interpreting 21
2.3. Three-party Models
The basis constellation, or type case, of interpreter-mediated interaction was
modeled by R.B.W. Anderson (1976/2002) as a monolingual speaker of language. A
communicating with a monolingual speaker of language B via an interpreter commanding
both languages.

Anderson‘s linear constellation model is one way of highlighting the pivotal

position of the bilingual interpreter in mediated exchange. Other authors have sought to
express this by buying a triangular representation in which the interpreter is depicted at
the apex. Such model has become the default representation in the domain of community
interpreting (e.g. Gentile et al 1996, Erasmus 1999), which is, after all, also referred to
sometimes as ‗three-cornered interpreting‘. They take account of the communicative
interaction between the primary parties and foreground the role of the interpreter as a
more or less active participant in the interaction rather than a mere ―switching station‘.

Monolingual speaker Interpreter Monolingual speaker

of Language A of Language B

Sa Iaba Sb

Figure 2.3 Anderson‘s ―type-case‘ model of three-party interaction (from R.B.W. Anderson 1976)

2.4. Gile‟s Interaction Models

A simple model of the interactional constellation in conference settings, were a
monolingual speaker addresses a more or less numerous audience, part of which cannot
comprehend the language of the original speech, was suggested by Gile (1995b)and it
shown in Figure 2.4

Basic Interpreting 22
 Though not necessarily involved directly in the interaction process, the ―client‖ in
Gile‘s model plays a significant role at the conference level. This dimension could be
specified further by accounting for a range of human agents who may have an impact on
the interpreter‘s working conditions, such as conference organizing staff, document
services, and technicians. Similar considerations apply to colleagues in the interpreting
team, especially in the case of relay interpreting.

Speaker Source language listener

Interpreter Target language listener

Client

Figure 2.4 Gile‘s interaction model of conference interpreting (from Gile 1995b)

2.5. Pochhacker‟s Interactant Model

Models of interpreted interaction, whether reflecting a ‗one-toone‘ or a ‗one-to-
many‘ constellation, can thus be extended and specified by adding further participant
positions. At the same time, they can also be refined by adding further participant
positions, At the same time, they can also be refined to reflect relevant features of the
interacting parties. This is the aim of Pochhacker‘s (1992) model of interpreting situation,
which hinges on the ―perspective‖ of the individual interactant on the communicative
event (Figure 2.5).

The interactant model of situation foregrounds the ―role(s)‖ of the communicating

―person‖ in the interaction. It suggest that the interactant‘s ―perspective‖ on the situation,
constituted by a continuous ―assessment‖ of an intentional ―orientation‖ toward the other
interactants and their behavior is essentially shaped by the individual‘s socio-cultural

Basic Interpreting 23
‗background‘, or ―horizon,‖ made up from various types of cognitive competence and
experience. In the other words, the situation, in the more cognitive sense, exist only ‗in
the eyes of (i.e. is seen from the perspective of) the interactant. Model used by phycho-
physical factors relating to ―perception‖ and ―disposition,‖ the individual‘s orientation
and assessment (including factors like motivation, emotional attitude, expectations and,
not least, intentions) thus determine ‗what the situation is like‘ and how it should be acted
upon.
While the individualized interaction model applies both to the ‗one-to-many‘
constellation typical of conference settings and to triadic interaction in mediated face-to-
face communication, it address position and roles at the level of the speech event as such
rather than the utterance-level dynamic of the communicating exchange.

orientation assessment

PERSPECTIVE

perception disposition
Role(s)
person

SOCIO-CULTURE

knowledge &competence
contextual
specialized
personal
general

HORIZON

Figure 2.5 Pochhacker‘s interactant model of the interpreting situation (adapted from Pochhacker 1992)

Basic Interpreting 24
2.6 Ingram Semiotic Communication Model
An early model of interpreting base on standard communication model was
developed in 1970‘s by Ingram. Originally conceived for sign language interpreting,
Ingram‘s model goes beyond a verbal-linguistic conception of ‗message transfer‘ and
represent ―message in a multiplicity of interwoven modes‖. The idea of multiple codes as
distinctive feature of Ingram‘s semiotic model of interpreting as depicted in Figure 2.6
Ingram‘s model is clearly reminiscent of the classic linear model of sender-
receiver communication and, despite explicit reference to ―context‖, essentially depicts
the interpreter as a ‗code-switching‘ station in the ‗channel‘.

CONTEXT

NOISE

C1 C5
C3 C4 C6
C2 C7

Source Encoder Interpreter Decoder Receptor

Figure 2.6 Ingram‘s semiotic communication model of interpreting (from Ingram 1985)

2.7 Alexieva‟s Interpreting Constellation

Further analytical distinctions for the macro-level or mediated encounters have
been proposed by Bistra Alexieva (1997/2002. In her multi-parameter model of
interpreting constellation, she outlines a proto-typology of interpreter-mediated events on
the basis of seven scales, most of which related to the socio-situational constellation of
the interacting parties. The parameters which bear directly on the constellation of
interactants are:

Basic Interpreting 25
  ―distance‖ vs. ―proximity‖ (between speaker , addressee and interpreter);
 ―equality/ solidarity‖ vs. ―non-equality/ power‖ (related to status, role and gender
of speaker and addressee, as well as the interpreter in some cases);
 ―formal setting‖ vs. ―informal setting‖ (related to number of participants, degree
of privacy, and distance from home country);
 ―cooperativeness/ directness‖ vs. ―non-cooperativeness/ indirectness‖ (relevant to
negotiation strategies)
 ―shared goals‖ vs. ―conflicting goals‖

Alexieva applies her multi-parameters model to an assessment of interpreter-mediated

events of their degree of ―culture specificity,‖ thus reaffirming the role of ―culture‖ in the
conception of interpreting as interaction.

Basic Interpreting 26
EXERCISES

1. Why is the seven levels of analysis in interpreting which is based on Pachhacker level
of modeling in interpreting sets in concentric circles rather than separable categories?

2. Is Tseng‘s models of professionalization still relevant in today‘s situation? Why or

why i

3. What kind of interpreting constellation can be covered by Anderson‘s ―type-case‘

model of three-party interaction? Eplain your answer.

4. How significant is the influence of client in Gile‘s model of conference interpreting?

5. Explain all 5 parameters in Alexieva‘s Interpreting constellation.

Basic Interpreting 27
REFERENCE

Durban, Chris. 2011. Interpreting Getting it Right. American Translators Association

Pochhaker, Franz. 2004. Introducing Interpreting Studies. Routledge: London and New
York.

Basic Interpreting 28
PART 3
OVERVIEW
In this part students will learn in detail about consecutive interpreting.
And they will be able to analyze any particular video that shows the process
of consecutive interpreting in particular setting. Students also are expected to
be able to perform a simple interpreting process in particular setting.

Basic Interpreting 29
3.1 Type of Interpreting (review)

National Association of Judiciary Interpreters & Translators in the article entitled

Modes of Interpreting: Simultaneous, Consecutive, & Sight Translation (2006) states the
type of interpreting explicitly from the title itself. It also gives a hints what each of
interpreter need to prepare.
Simultaneous interpreting is the rendering of one spoken language into
another when running renditions are needed at the same time as the English language
communication. The interpreter speaks virtually at the same time as the Limited English
proficiency (LEP) person. When done properly, it is a true and accurate interpretation of
one language to another, done without omissions or embellishments, so that the parties
can understand one another quickly. The simultaneous mode is used whenever
participants, most often defendants, are playing a passive role in court proceedings such
as arraignments, hearings, or trials. The LEP speaker needs to hear what is being said but
is not required, at that particular stage of the proceedings, to speak herself. In order to
preserve the defendant‘s due process rights, everything spoken in open court must be
interpreted to her simultaneously. This enables the defendant to be truly present and take
an active part in her defense. In the simultaneous interpreting mode, the interpreter must
do several things at once:
• listen intently to whatever party is speaking
• accurately interpret from the source language to the target language
• be prepared to switch languages rapidly whenever the LEP party is directly
engaged in the procedure and consecutive interpreting is required

In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter waits until the speaker has

finished before rendering speech into another language. Consecutive interpreting is a true
and accurate interpretation of one language to another, spoken in brief sound bites
successively, without omissions or embellishments, so that the parties can understand
each other slowly and deliberately. The consecutive mode is used whenever LEP
participants are playing an active role — when they must speak or respond — during
examinations, cross-examinations, and other proceedings. Consecutive interpreting is

Basic Interpreting 30
often used when parties are addressing a witness or defendant on the witness stand. In
legal settings, such as attorney/client or prosecutor/witness/victim interviews, the
consecutive mode is the preferred mode of interpreting, as it is in a question and answer
session. Consecutive interpreting should be used during police interviews of suspects
and/or witnesses or victims, especially during recorded interviews. The gaps in speech
between the parties allow for a clear and accurate transcript to be prepared if necessary
for further court proceedings. In the consecutive interpreting mode, the interpreter must:
• listen intently to whatever party is speaking
• be prepared to take notes to aid in recollection
• accurately interpret after the party has completed her statement.

Sight translation is the rendering of material written in one language into

spoken speech in another language. It is a true and accurate verbal translation of written
material into the spoken form so that the parties can understand what documents written
in foreign languages say. Sight translation is often used when LEP defendants are given
forms in court that are written in English, such as rights forms, plea forms, and probation
orders. It is also used when foreign-language documents such as birth certificates,
personal letters, and identity documents are presented in court. Recommended practice is
to afford the interpreter sufficient time to review the document‘s contents before
rendering it.When performing sight translation, the interpreter must:
• possess a wide vocabulary and knowledge of the specific type of document
presented
• have the ability to quickly scan and understand the main points of the document
• accurately interpret the document into its equivalent meaning in the target
language.
Jin (2010), in his article states about consecutive interpreting. Consecutive
interpreting refers to the rendition of the whole source speech segment by segment; the
interpreter has chances to take notes during the interpreting process. As for the length of
this segment, controversies exist.
Generally, consecutive interpreting is regarded as one of the two working modes
in international conferences, in which simultaneous interpreting plays the dominant role.

Basic Interpreting 31
Compared with simultaneous interpreting, consecutive interpreting may actually be used
more often. This is partly due to the limited numbers of qualified simultaneous
interpreters and to technical difficulties (Gile 2001), and partly due to the fact that
simultaneous interpreting is not always needed by clients. Simultaneous interpreting has
the advantages of quick delivery, but a disadvantage in terms of the amount of
information delivered (Chernov 1994; Phelan 2001). In the interpreting market, there are
clients who are very strict with the completeness of information and do need the thinking
time, especially during the process of negotiation (Seleskovitch 1978). Therefore, in
those situations, consecutive interpreting is given priority. Moreover, the distinction
between classic consecutive and short consecutive has further widened the utility range of
consecutive interpreting; i.e. consecutive interpreting is also usd in community
interpreting, in which short phrases (sometimes even one word0 and batches of sentences
are interwoven in the dialogues.
Durban (2001) also defines consecutive interpreting as follows. In consecutive

interpreting, the interpreter takes turns with the other speakers, as in a Q&A session.
The client speaks, then stops. The interpreter steps in to interpret, then stops. If long
statements are made, the interpreter may take notes to ensure accuracy. This is the format
for interpreting by telephone, for many meetings, for some medical consultations and for
certain court proceedings. Electronic equipment (microphones and headsets) may be
necessary, depending on the size of the room.
Because of the stops and starts, such events will always take longer than usual—
up to twice as long. Be sure to factor this into your schedule.
Another definition states by Nolan (2005). A consecutive interpreter listens to the
speaker, takes notes, and then reproduces the speech in the target language. Depending on
the length of the speech, this may be done all at one go or in several segments. The
consecutive interpreter relies mainly on memory, but good note-taking technique is an
essential aid.

Basic Interpreting 32
3.2 Setting and Constellation of Consecutive Interpreting
National Association of Judiciary Interpreters & Translators in the article entitled
Modes of Interpreting: Simultaneous, Consecutive, & Sight Translation (2006) explains
about setting of consecutive interpreting. In what area is it mostly used. Consecutive
interpreting is often used when parties are addressing a witness or defendant on the
witness stand. In legal settings, such as attorney/client or prosecutor/witness/victim
interviews, the consecutive mode is the preferred mode of interpreting, as it is in a
question and answer session. Consecutive interpreting should be used during police
interviews of suspects and/or witnesses or victims, especially during recorded.
Duran in his the book entitled Interpreting Getting it Right (2011) states in glance
about the constellation of consecutive interpreting
…This is the format for interpreting by telephone, for many meetings, for some
medical consultations and for certain court proceedings….
(Durban, 2011:9)

3.3 Court Interpreting

Supreme Court of Wisconsin Office of Court Operation has established a
handbook entitled The Wisconsin Court Interpreter Handbook: A Guide For Judges,
Court Commissioners, Attorneys, Interpreters and Other Users (2004) that contains the
role of court interpreter, the qualifications of court interpreter, scheduling and the person
who qualifies for court interpreter, paying and any particular matters which connected
with court interpreting, especially in state of Wisconsin.
For courts, interpreting is the unbiased oral translation of testimony, documents,
instructions, rulings of the court and arguments of attorneys, by a qualified neutral
interpreter, so that a court or jury might correctly determine the facts of the case at hand.
Generally, an individual qualifies for an interpreter if:
• The individual is charged with a crime.
• The individual child or parent is subject to juvenile court jurisdiction.
• The individual is subject to a mental or alcoholic commitment.
• The person is a witness in any of the above.

Basic Interpreting 33
 In each proceeding when a court has notice that an individual has Limited English
Proficiency (LEP), the court shall make a factual determination as to whether or not the
impairment is sufficient to require the use of an interpreter. The judge must determine whether
the LEP is sufficient to prevent the individual from communicating with his or her attorney,
reasonably understanding testimony in English or reasonably being understood in English.
When the services of an interpreter are required, the judge shall advise the person of
his/her right to an interpreter and that, if he/she cannot afford one, an interpreter will be provided
at public expense. Only an individual in need of interpreting services may waive the right to have
an interpreter present. This right may be waived only in open court and on the record
When the services of an interpreter are required, the court shall qualify the interpreter as
to experience, training, credentials and skill. When an individual who qualifies for an interpreter
is deaf or hard-of hearing, the court shall, if possible, appoint a certified interpreter from a list
maintained by the State (for instance, Wisconsin Department of Health and Family Service‘s
Office of the Deaf and Hard of Hearing). If no listed interpreter is available or able to interpret,
the court shall appoint an interpreter who is able to accurately communicate with the deaf or hard-
of-hearing person

1. FINDING A COURT INTERPRETER

When an individual appears before a judge and does not speak, and/or hear, or
understand the spoken English language, an interpreter is required to assure that rights are
protected and court hearings are expedited. It is incumbent upon the participants (judges,
attorneys and court staff) to be aware of situations that may require the use of an
interpreter.
Judges should avoid conducting court hearings without the presence of a qualified
court interpreter. It is inappropriate to use an individual who is a family member, a
representative of a law enforcement agency, or a spectator as a court interpreter. In
certain emergencies or when the need for an interpreter was not known (at a first
appearance, for example) it may be necessary to use a friend, law officer, etc., to facilitate
the proceeding or fulfill a statutory obligation. If possible, the proceeding should be
adjourned and rescheduled when a qualified interpreter is available.

Basic Interpreting 34
2. SCHEDULING A COURT INTERPRETER
The appropriate time for the court to schedule a case involving a court interpreter
is after the court has located a qualified interpreter.
A qualified court interpreter is a professional whose time should be scheduled just
like expert witnesses coming before the court. As communication technologies advance it
may become easier to hold court with attorneys, clients, judges and interpreters working
from remote locations. The court should seek to secure the services of an interpreter with
the highest level of certification and training.

3. QUALIFYING A COURT INTERPRETER

Under State law, courts are required to qualify interpreters as an expert. Following
this procedure ensures the protection of the court record on appeal. The following list of
questions may be used in the voir dire examination of a potential court interpreter.
Voir Dire Examination Questions:
1. What is your native language? How did you learn English/the other language? How
long have you been speaking it?
2. Please describe your formal schooling.
3. Do you have any formal training in interpreting? In legal or court interpreting?
4. Please describe your experience as an interpreter. Have you ever interpreted in court
before? What kind of proceeding?
5. Are you certified as a court interpreter in Wisconsin or any state or federal court? Do
you have any other accreditation for interpretation or translation?
6. Have you spoken with the person who needs interpreting, or do you need a few
minutes now to talk? Are you familiar with the dialect he/she speaks? Are you able to
understand him/her and communicate with him/her?
7. Do you know any of the parties, witnesses, or attorneys? Are you aware of any conflict
of interest that you might have in this case?
8. Describe what it means to interpret simultaneously and consecutively. Are you able to
do so? Do you understand that you must interpret everything said on the record?
9. Do you need time to review any documents in this case?

Basic Interpreting 35
10. Have you read the Code of Ethics for Court Interpreters in the Wisconsin Courts? Do
you understand it and agree to abide by it?

Judges, attorneys, clerks and other agencies should use certified court interpreters as
their first choice for legal work, when available.
In addition to interpreters who are certified by the Director of State Courts Office,
courts may also consider the following levels of certification to be sufficient for
qualifying foreign language interpreters.
• Graduates of a foreign language certification program from an accredited university or
college or,
• Interpreters certified by the Director of the Administrative Office of the United States
Court or,
• Individuals with adequate prior experience as a court interpreter or otherwise possessing
the necessary expertise.

4. PAYING COURT INTERPRETERS

Fiscal concerns are secondary to fundamental fairness when determining how
much an interpreter will be paid. Interpreters are paid by the respective counties, which in
turn, may be reimbursed by the State if a determination of indigency has been made. The
maximum reimbursement rate to the counties is $40 for the first hour and $20 for each
additional ½ hour for using certified interpreters and $30.00 for the first hour and $15 for
each additional ½ hour for other qualified interpreters.

5. SUGGESTIONS FOR CASES INVOLVING DEAF OR HARD-OF-HEARING

PEOPLE
• SPEAK DIRECTLY TO THE DEAF OR HARD OF HEARING PERSON.
It is important from the deaf or hard-of-hearing person‘s point of view that the court and
lawyers talk directly to the deaf or hard-of-hearing person. The deaf or hard-of-hearing
person can quickly sense your indifference or your discomfort if you face only the
interpreter and talk only to the interpreter. When talking to a deaf or hard-of-hearing

Basic Interpreting 36
person, speak directly to the person‘s face. Speak naturally, without shouting or distorting
your normal mouth movements.

• NO LANGUAGE CAN ACCOMMODATE A LITERAL WORD-FOR-WORD

ENGLISH TRANSLATION. ALLOW FLEXIBILITY IN INTERPRETATION.
A deaf or hard-of-hearing person may become confused by a word-for-word translation.
There are both American Sign Language (ASL) and signed English commonly in use and
both these languages differ from spoken English. The interpreter should inform the deaf
or hard-of-hearing person‘s lawyer of the language and mode used by the client so that
the lawyer can inform the court of any problem and the possible need to explain in more
detail. Confusion can also result when a deaf or hard-of-hearing person nods ―yes‖ to an
interpreter‘s question but still has a quizzical look. ―Yes‖ may not be the answer to the
question, but only an indication that the person understands the question. A deaf or hard-
of-hearing person may even nod ―yes‖ without completely understanding. Repeating part
of a question is often the deaf or hard-of-hearing person‘s attempt to clarify it and it does
not necessarily mean confirmation or agreement. With the judge‘s approval there may be
an occasional need to ask leading questions.

• SPEAK AS YOU NORMALLY WOULD.

Speak naturally, but not too fast. Remember that names and some other words must be
fingerspelled, and this takes more time than signing. Although these proceedings may
take longer they are otherwise identical to other court proceedings; speak at a normal
rate. It must be realized that a deaf or hard-of-hearing person can concentrate on only one
person at a time. It
is just as impossible for an interpreter to interpret for two people simultaneously as it
would be for a court reporter to accurately take that testimony.

• MAKE SURE THE DEAF OR HARD OF HEARING PERSON ―SEES‖ THE

COMMUNICATION.
All deaf or hard-of-hearing people rely on information they see. To be effective,
communication must be visible. The court should make every attempt to facilitate a good

Basic Interpreting 37
visual contact between the deaf or hard-of-hearing person, the interpreter and other
participants. The court must make sure the deaf or hard-of-hearing person can watch the
interpreter and then look at any visual evidence.

• BE AWARE OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS.

Any time there is a deaf or hard-of-hearing person in court, be aware of environmental
factors that may interfere with communication. While a deaf person may or may not be
affected by background noises, a great deal of background movement or changes in
lighting will be distracting. A hard-of-hearing person who uses a hearing aid or who has
residual hearing might be seriously distracted by background noises. Minimize
machinery noises or other conversations.

∙ MATCH THE SKILLS OF THE INTERPRETER WITH THE NEEDS OF THE DEAF
OR HARD-OF-HEARING PERSON.
A qualified sign language interpreter is necessary to achieve full and effective
communication with a deaf or hard-of-hearing person in many situations. American Sign
Language (ASL) is a visible language linguistically independent from English. Many deaf
people use sign language rather than English as their primary mode of communication. There are
many variations and combinations of sign language. Even professional interpreters cannot
achieve effective communication all the time for all deaf or hard-of-hearing people who sign.
Typically, deaf people with native use of ASL are more successful in communicating with
persons who are highly visually oriented. Judges should consider the use of a deaf interpreter in
combination with a hearing relay interpreter who is proficient in ASL. The use of a deaf
interpreter may provide the greatest opportunity for the deaf client to have accurate linguistic and
cultural access to the judicial system. Avoid using family members or friends of deaf or hard-of-
hearing people as interpreters. The interpreter should be a neutral professional who facilitates
communication between the deaf or hard-of-hearing person and other participants in the
proceedings. Professional certified interpreters follow a code of ethics requiring confidentiality
and accuracy.

Basic Interpreting 38
• THE INTERPRETER SHOULD BE PRESENT UNTIL EXCUSED BY THE
COURT.
States interpretation of the whole proceeding is required when a deaf or hard-of- hearing person is
a party to the action or a spectator as long as they remain present in court.

• PROVIDE REST PERIODS FOR INTERPRETERS.

Like court reporters, interpreters must hear everything said and must concentrate fully in order to
do their job accurately. As a result, interpreters require rest periods for best performance. During
lengthy proceedings of forty-five minutes or more, it may be necessary to use two interpreters.
When two professional interpreters are present, usually one is actively interpreting while the other
is monitoring the ―on duty‖ interpreter. This helps to reduce fatigue and enhance accuracy.

• AVOID RELIANCE UPON WRITTEN NOTES AS THE MEANS OF

COMMUNICATION UNLESS REQUESTED.
At times a deaf or hard-of-hearing person will use written notes to communicate or to supplement
other modes of communication. Writing is not, however, always effective or appropriate.
Technology is affecting this area as machine readable assistance is becoming available. Real-time
court reporting may be beneficial and a number of court reporters are becoming certified in this
area. Some deaf or hard-of-hearing people are highly educated; they read and write well. Others
do not. It is a common misconception that deaf or hard-of-hearing people compensate for their
inability to hear by reading and writing. Many deaf or hard-of-hearing people, especially those
who lost their hearing before they learned to talk, have difficulty with written as well as spoken
English. They may be more comfortable communicating in American Sign Language.

• CALENDARING THE CASE WHEN AN INTERPRETER IS INVOLVED.

The interpreter is a professional. It is appropriate to view the arrangements for an interpreter as
contractual in nature. It is improper to subpoena a person to act as an interpreter in order to avoid
paying the interpreter appropriate compensation.

• LIP-READING
Another common misconception is that all deaf or hard-of-hearing people can read lips.
In fact, very few can lip-read well enough to understand speech. The court and lawyers

Basic Interpreting 39
can help by repeating the thought using different words. Also, use gestures freely. The
difference between ―time‖ and ―dime‖ is obvious when you point to your wristwatch. Do
not inhibit natural gesture. Lip-reading can only occur when the deaf or hard-of-hearing
person can see the speaker. Lip-reading often supplements other modes of
communication but is seldom sufficient to assure effective communication in a
courtroom. Furthermore, lip-reading ability may decrease dramatically in stressful
situations, like those encountered in the court environment. Persons with cochlear
implants may prefer lip-reading. Some deaf people may require the use of an oral
interpreter or real-time captioning. An oral interpreter faces the deaf person and silently
mouths the spoken communication along with the speaker.

• DEAF SPEECH
Early deafness interferes with English language and speech acquisition. Nevertheless,
some deaf or hard-of-hearing people have normal, intelligible speech. Others, however,
do not speak at all or speak with unusual voice quality, inflections or modulations. If you
have difficulty understanding a deaf or hard-of-hearing person who wishes to speak,
listen without interruption until you become accustomed to the voice patterns and
rhythm. ―Hearing-impaired‖, ―deafmute‖ and ―deaf and dumb‖ are considered pejorative
terms by most deaf or hard-of-hearing people.

• REAL TIME REPORTING OR REAL TIME CAPTIONING

Real Time Captioning (RTC) is an emerging accommodation choice that parallels the
work of Court Reporters. It involves the use of individual(s) trained in real time
reporting, steno machine, real time software and lap top computer as well as materials on
a situational basis (i.e., projector). A trained captioner uses a steno machine that sends
steno-entries to a real-time software that translates steno-entries into readable text on the
lap top computer instantaneously at a near verbatim rate.

Basic Interpreting 40
• DO NOT IGNORE THE NEEDS OF THOSE INDIVIDUALS WHO ARE HARD OF
HEARING BUT WHO ARE NOT DEAF.
One in a hundred Americans are completely deaf but one in sixteen has a significant
hearing loss. Environmental noise can interfere with the performance of hearing aids.
There are devices available that can reduce levels of environmental noise. The court
should direct participants to speak louder. The court should consider having the deaf or
hard-of-hearing person repeat the question asked, before answering. It may be
appropriate to rearrange the courtroom to facilitate communication for all participants.
Assistive listening devices are available for installation in courtrooms and are required in
new courtroom construction.

6. SUGGESTIONS FOR CASES INVOLVING PERSONS WHO SPEAK A

FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Interpreters for foreign languages should expect to be qualified as experts. Prior to any
scheduled hearing attorneys should contact the clerk of court when they represent a client
who speaks a foreign language. In cases when a rare, hard to accommodate language skill
is required, additional advance notice can expedite the process of locating and making
arrangements for a qualified interpreter to be present. Clerks of court should work in
conjunction with their district court administrators to maintain a comprehensive list of
qualified foreign language interpreters in their district. Once alerted to the possible need
for an interpreter, you need not simply rely on an attorney‘s representation regarding
whether or not an interpreter is needed.

• VOIR DIRE THE DEFENDANT/WITNESS - DO NOT ASK IF THE PERSON

SPEAKS ENGLISH. DO NOT ASK LEADING QUESTIONS; ASK NO
QUESTIONS THAT CALL FOR YES/NO ANSWERS.
Consider the following questions. Explain that you are asking these questions to evaluate
an interpreter.
⇒ Please state your name and address.
⇒ Please tell us your birthday, your age, and how many children there were in your
family.

Basic Interpreting 41
 ⇒ Please tell us whether you are employed, and if you are employed, describe the
kind of work that you do.
⇒ Describe your education. What language do you read and write?
⇒ Describe the courtroom.
⇒ Describe with whom and how frequently you speak English.
⇒ Tell me a little about how comfortable you feel speaking English.

• EVALUATE THE NEED FOR AN INTERPRETER IN LIGHT OF THE

PROCEEDING.
It is entirely appropriate to evaluate the need for an interpreter, and the language skills of
the interpreter, in light of the complexity of the proceedings. Rudimentary language skills
may suffice when simply scheduling a hearing, while the most sophisticated skills are
required for persons interpreting live testimony.

• REMEMBER, IN ORDER FOR NON-ENGLISH SPEAKING DEFENDANTS TO

TESTIFY IN THEIR OWN DEFENSE THEY MUST BE ABLE TO:
⇒ accurately and completely describe persons, places, situations, events;
⇒ tell ―what happened‖ over time;
⇒ request clarifications when questions are vague or misleading.
The judge and attorneys should speak directly to the person (not to the interpreter).
Interpretation should be literal; or as close to verbatim as makes sense (i.e. slang or
idioms).

• INTERPRETATION SHOULD BE IN THE FIRST PERSON.

Incorrect Correct
Q. When the accident happened Q. When the accident happened
were he awake? were you awake?
Interpreter
A. The witness says he was A. Yes.
awake.

Basic Interpreting 42
Attorney
Q. Ask him what he saw at Q. What did you see at the
that time. time?

Interpreter
A. He saw the other car A. I saw the other car coming
coming fast. fast.

The judge should stop third person renditions and instruct the participants to use 1st
person renditions.

Some other points to consider:

• Court interpreting is conditioned by the formal environment of the courtroom and the
adversary proceedings. Be sensitive to this. The interpreter acts as his or her own sound
engineer. Visibility helps to foster effective communication in this type of environment.
As with interpretation for the deaf or hard-of -hearing, the court should allow flexibility
in physical arrangements of furniture and people to enhance communication.
• Qualified interpreters are hard to find. Use your judicial district‘s Court Interpreter
Resource List (contact your district court administrator) when an interpreter is needed
or consult the Interpreter Roster. A skilled interpreter should be familiar with legal
terminology and court interpreting procedures.
• It may be necessary to adjourn a hearing in order to obtain the services of an interpreter.
Do not use family members or friends of the defendant or witness as an interpreter. The
interpreter should be a neutral professional, skilled in the techniques of interpretation.
• Court interpreters need breaks or rest periods in order to function effectively.

7. OATH FOR INTERPRETERS

I solemnly swear [or affirm] that in all proceedings in the courts of Wisconsin to which I
am appointed as an interpreter, I will interpret truly, accurately, completely, and impartially, in
accordance with the standards prescribed by law, the code of ethics for court interpreters, and
Wisconsin guidelines for court interpreting. If I am appointed as an interpreter for a juror, I also

Basic Interpreting 43
swear [or affirm] that I will not participate personally in the jury‘s deliberations, nor make any
comment about my personal recollections of the evidence or my opinions about the outcome of
this case. I will not disclose or comment upon anything that I hear in jury deliberations unless
ordered to do so by the court.

3.4 Business Interpreting

Institute of Translation & Interpreting (2012) has established one of
Recommended Model General Terms of for Commissioned Interpreting Work which tells
us in detail what professional business interpreter supposed to concern in.
 DEFINITIONS
Interpreter shall mean the provider of the service. Client shall mean the buyer of the
service; the Client can be the organizer of the event, an agency or any other person who
will sign the Contract. Event shall be a meeting, a conference or any other gathering at
which Interpreters are required.

 INTEGRITY
Interpreters shall be morally and legally responsible for the integrity of their work, in
accordance with the Institute‘s Code of Professional Conduct. They shall in all
circumstances endeavor to give a faithful rendering of the original communication
without deliberate addition or omission, except where additional explanation may be
necessary to make clear cultural differences or resolve ambiguities or multiple nuances of
meaning, resisting any pressure to do otherwise. The Client shall undertake to keep the
Interpreter harmless from any claim for infringement of copyright or any other
intellectual property rights and likewise from any legal action including defamation
which may arise as a result of the act of interpreting.

 CONFIDENTIALITY
Interpreters shall at no time disclose to any third party any information not in the public
domain which comes to their knowledge as a consequence of an interpreting assignment.

Basic Interpreting 44
 SERVICES PROVIDED
The services provided by the Interpreter shall comprise the interpreting services agreed in
writing at the time when an assignment is accepted and/or those specified in these terms
of business. They shall not without express agreement confirmed in writing at the time
include any additional services.

 CONTRACT
All assignments shall be confirmed by a written Contract between the Client and the
Interpreter, signed by both, which shall include these terms of business and any variants
explicitly agreed. If any Interpreter is commissioned for an assignment and there is no
time to enter into a written contract, the assignment shall be entered into on the basis of
an oral contract only and these terms of business shall be deemed to apply. Where an
Interpreter‘s services have been contracted for in accordance with either of the means
specified above, the Client shall be wholly liable for:
- organisation of the work of Interpreters at the event,
- remuneration of the Interpreter‘s services, and
- reimbursement of any expenses incurred by the Interpreter in connection with
the assignment whether the interpreting services are in fact provided or not.

 TEAMS
Where an assignment requires continuous interpreting for any period of more than three
quarters of an hour, a team of a minimum of two Interpreters shall be engaged to provide
the interpreting service. As an exception to the above, one Interpreter alone may be
responsible for all interpreting services in the assignment if this is explicitly accepted by
the Interpreter in writing. Where more than two Interpreters are engaged for an
assignment one Interpreter shall be designated team leader. This team leader shall be
responsible for organizing the work of the interpreting
Team and all liaison with the Client. Additional fees may be agreed in advance for this
additional work. No persons who are not members of the Team may be used as
Interpreters to complement the Team, or otherwise make use of the interpreting
equipment used by the Team.

Basic Interpreting 45
 WORKING HOURS
A working day shall comprise no more than eight hours during which interpreting will be
required, and no more than two hours travel time. Interpreters shall be given a morning
break, one midday break of at least 1 hour and one afternoon break. No demands shall be
made on the skills of the Interpreter during the breaks. If in the course of an interpreting
assignment it is found that interpreting services will be required for an additional period
after the period of work for which the Interpreter was initially contracted, the Interpreter
may be invited, but not compelled to:
- continue for a further agreed period on that same day,
- continue for a further period on subsequent days.

 QUOTATION
Fees quoted by an Interpreter, or on behalf of a team of Interpreters, in full knowledge of
the contents and conditions of an assignment, shall be considered contractually binding
and valid for acceptance for three months only. Quotations shall be confirmed in writing
and any VAT applicable in addition to the fee shall be stipulated.

 FEES
All fees and allowances shall be freely negotiated and paid in full following receipt of an
invoice, not later than 30 days after the end of the event. Fees shall be charged on the
basis of a full day, or half a day in the case of a period of less than four hours including
travel time in any one morning or afternoon. Where travel between the Interpreter‘s
normal place of residence and an assignment by the means agreed between the parties
cannot reasonably be completed within the same day or days as the assignment, travel
time shall be remunerated as above at the same rate as working time. A supplementary
fee for working unsociable hours shall be agreed between the Interpreter and the Client in
advance for assignments between the hours of 8 p.m. and 7 a.m., including travel time, or
at weekends or on public holidays.

 TRAVEL ACOMODATIONS

Basic Interpreting 46
Arrangements for travel and accommodation shall be the responsibility of either the
Client or the Interpreter, as agreed before acceptance. Travel arrangements shall ensure
that the Interpreter arrives at an agreed time before the start of the assignment and does
not have to leave prematurely. Where travel arrangements are made by the Client, these
shall be such as to ensure that the Interpreter arrives sufficiently rested to fulfill the
assignment to the expected standard. The arrangements made shall be accepted in writing
by the Interpreter. Where travel arrangements are made by the Interpreter, the Interpreter
shall seek to obtain travel and accommodation at a reasonable cost compatible with
satisfactory performance of the assignment. These arrangements shall be accepted by the
Client in writing and any expenditure incurred shall be reimbursed to the Interpreter
within no more than 30 days. If any such arrangements made by the Interpreter have to be
varied or cancelled, any reimbursed sums recovered by the Interpreter shall be
immediately repaid to the Client.

 CANCELLATION
If an accepted assignment is curtailed or cancelled either wholly or in part, or
performance of the assignment is frustrated for reasons for which the Client or the
Client‘s principal is responsible, the Client shall be liable to payment of a cancellation fee
according to Clause 12. Any expenditure incurred as agreed in the contract and any
additional expenditure incurred as a result of the cancellation shall also be reimbursed.
However if at the time of cancellation the Client is able to offer an alternative assignment
of a similar type under comparable conditions and circumstances for all or part of the
period of the original assignment, the Client‘s liability to the Interpreter in respect of
cancellation fees shall be reduced by the amount of the fees payable for the alternative
assignment.
Any cancellation fee shall be agreed between the parties prior to acceptance of the
assignment and shall be determined in the light of
a) the time between the notification of cancellation and the expected start date,
b) the period of time between acceptance of the assignment and the expected start
date of the assignment, and
c) the expected length of the assignment.

Basic Interpreting 47
 SUBSITUTION OF INTERPRETERS
Substitution shall only be permitted in documented circumstances of unavoidable
circumstances. In such circumstances, and if the Interpreter has agreed in advance in
writing to do so, the Interpreter shall endeavour to find a suitable substitute. The Client
shall reasonably accept this substitute, who shall be engaged on the same terms as the
Interpreter had previously agreed with the Client. Acceptance of the substitute by the
Client shall discharge the Interpreter from any further liability.

 UNAVOIDABLE CIRCUMTANCES
The Interpreter undertakes to notify the Client at the earliest possible opportunity if
he/she is prevented from undertaking an assignment or if performance is frustrated by
unavoidable circumstances. In giving such notice the Interpreter shall relinquish any right
to:
- remuneration for the uncompleted part of the assignment
- the reimbursement of any expenses, except those already irrecoverably incurred,
or necessarily incurred in returning the Interpreter to his/her normal place of
residence by suitable means.
Where an Interpreter is engaged on an assignment and is as a result of unavoidable
circumstances unable to continue and unable to return to his or her normal place of
residence, the Client shall be responsible for making arrangements for this and for
reimbursing any expenditure and any loss of remuneration incurred.

 PREPARATION
The Client shall provide the Interpreter with suitable information in the form of
background documentation (programmes, agendas, minutes of previous meetings,
reports, brochures, case documents, affidavits, purpose of meeting, names of participants,
etc.), where possible in all the languages in use at an event, in good time and preferably
two weeks in advance of an assignment in order to ensure provision of a quality service.
If this is not possible, or if it is in any case desirable, the Client shall arrange for a
briefing. Attendance by the Interpreter at such a briefing shall be paid as working time.

Basic Interpreting 48
Copies of:
- the texts of any prepared statements or presentations
- slides or other materials which will be read out or referred to by speakers in the
course of an assignment
- the scripts of any videos or films shown shall be supplied to the Interpreter by
the Client beforehand, not less than 24 hours in advance.
No information in such materials shall be disclosed by the Interpreter outside the context
of the assignment, and the Interpreter shall be responsible for their safekeeping and
immediate return to the Client at the end of the assignment.

 WORKING CONDITIONS
The Client shall ensure that speakers are fully visible to the Interpreter and that they are
sufficiently near to be clearly heard. If this is not possible, the Client shall ensure that the
speaker‘s voice or film/video soundtrack is in any case clearly conveyed directly to the
Interpreter without interfering noise. Simultaneous interpreting equipment shall conform
to current ISO and CEI standards. The Client shall ensure that all the parties and their
signing spaces can be seen directly in the case of sign language interpreting. In non-
signed interpreting the speaker should be made visible by means of an image providing a
clear and detailed view of the speaker‘s face and body movements sufficient for the
Interpreter‘s requirements.

 RECORDINGS
No record of an Interpreter‘s work shall be made without the Interpreter‘s written
consent, except where such recording is normal in legal proceedings.

 COMPLAINTS
Any complaint in connection with interpreting work carried out shall be notified to the
Interpreter by the Client (or vice-versa) not later than one month from the final day of an
assignment.

Basic Interpreting 49
Complaints against ITI members shall be notified to ITI and settled in accordance with
the Rules of the Institute of Translation and Interpreting. All endeavours should first be
made to settle matters amicably. Should this not be possible, the UK law shall apply.

 RESPONSIBILITY AND LIABILITY

The interpreting task shall be carried out by the Interpreter using reasonable skill and care
and in accordance with the provisions and spirit of the Code of Professional Conduct of
the Institute of Translation and Interpreting. The Interpreter shall use his or her best
endeavours to interpret to the best of his or her ability, knowledge and belief. No
warranty can however be given as to the absolute correctness of any interpreting.
Following normal practice within the profession, in the event of a dispute or complaint
about the work, the liability of the Interpreter shall be limited to the value invoiced by the
Interpreter. Consequential damages and liability are expressly excluded.

 UNFAIR COMPRTITION
Where in the course of business the Client is an intermediary and introduces the
Interpreter to a third party by way of business, the Interpreter shall not for a period of 6
months approach the said third party for the purpose of soliciting work, nor work for the
third party in any interpreting capacity, without the Client‘s written consent.
However, this shall not apply where:
- the third party has had previous dealings with the Interpreter
- the Interpreter acts on the basis of information in the public domain
- the Client has failed to pay the Interpreter
- the approach from the third party is independent of the relationship with the
intermediary
- the approach to the third party arises as the result of broadband advertising, or
- the third party is seeking interpreters on the open market.

 APLICABILITY AND INTERGRITY

These Model Terms shall be construed jointly with the Code of Professional Conduct of
the Institute of Translation and Interpreting in order to be complete and effective. They

Basic Interpreting 50
shall also be subject to any detailed arrangements or any variants expressly specified in
the order relating to a particular interpreting task. No waiver of any breach of any
condition in this document shall be considered as a waiver of any subsequent breach of
the same or any other provision.

NOTES ON USE OF THE MODEL TERMS OF BUSINESS FOR

INTERPRETING
General
- These recommended Model General Terms of Business represent a set of
general conditions which can be used by all Interpreters as a basis of contract.
They only provide a background framework; the details of an assignment will
be specified in the Order. The terms of the Order constitute the Special Terms
of the contract and prevail over the General Terms.
- As a member of ITI you are not obliged to use these Terms of Business, nor
do they apply automatically. They are there for your guidance. You are free to
enter into any contractual arrangement you like, and to alter these terms as
you like, but it would be prudent to take legal advice before doing so.
- However, if you do use them, you must inform your Client or your supplier
you are doing so, and you must do so before you start any assignment. You
should send your Client a copy before you accept an assignment or start
working regularly with a particular Client or supplier.
- If you accept a contract for an assignment orally, you must say at the time if
you are applying these conditions.
- Similarly you must inform your Client or supplier about any other terms or
variants you are applying. It is good practice to confirm these immediately in
writing by fax.
- If you do not inform your Client or supplier what terms of business you are
using (or vice versa) then none of them will apply.

Basic Interpreting 51
 - A Client or supplier may also send you his terms, either before or after
receiving yours. Remember that the terms which will apply to the contract
will be those last sent by either one of you to the other, but to make sure, it is
better to receive written confirmation that your terms are acceptable before
you start a first assignment for a new Client.

 NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL CLAUSES

It is very important that the Interpreter and the Client are clear about what it is that the
Interpreter has undertaken to do. Anything over and above what has already been agreed
at the time of confirmation will in essence require a new contract.
Always get the contract (or terms of order) in writing if you can, and preferably have
both parties sign them in confirmation. If there is no time for this, try at least to fax your
confirmation. On a Client‘s duty to remunerate the Interpreter see also clauses 11 & 12 –
Cancellation.
In some circumstances, e.g. court, it is normal, even though it is not necessarily good
practice, to use only one Interpreter.
It is important to be clear about who will be making the travel arrangements, and what
means of travel/standard of accommodation will be appropriate. These details must be
specified in the order. Circumstances may vary infinitely, but the essential aim to bear in
mind is that the quality of the Interpreter‘s performance of the assignment must not be
diminished as a result of the need to work away from base.
In order to apply in contract, the arranged cancellation fee must be stated explicitly. The
terms in this clause are just a checklist of the factors that need to be borne in mind.
The parties must agree who will be responsible for finding a replacement, if needed.
It is advantageous to specify that English law applies to the contract, as failure to do so
may prejudice the cover provided by your professional indemnity insurance policy.
This is not a let-out for sub-standard work. It merely reflects the fact that we are all
human, and that your liability should be assessed on the basis of the level of service an
average professional Interpreter could reasonably be expected to provide. Limitation of
liability as claimed in this clause has not been tested in law, but the unlimited liability

Basic Interpreting 52
usually assumed in English law may contravene the principles of the Treaty of Rome
seeking to ensure a level playing field for business in Europe.

3.5 Medical Interpreting

International Medical Interpreters Association & Education Development Center, Inc.
has established Medical Interpreting standard of Practice (2007) which contains the
standard of practice in this particular constellation.
The primary task of the interpreter is to interpret, that is, to convert a message uttered
in a source language into an equivalent message in the target language so that the
intended recipient of the message responds to it as if he or she had heard it in the original
(Seleskovitch, 1978; Cokely, 1988; Downing and Swabey, 1992). The primary test of a
competent interpreter, therefore, is the accuracy and completeness of the interpretation.
Although the main task of the interpreter is to interpret, there are other complementary
skills that an interpreter must possess, although they are not necessarily used in every
encounter. The standards of practice in this section focus on both the skills of straight
interpreting and these complementary skills. The skills in this section can be organized
around five subtasks:
1) Setting the stage. The role of the professional interpreter is still new and largely
unknown in the medical setting. For this reason, it is important for interpreters to
set clear expectations of their role at the very start of the triadic (provider-patient-
interpreter) encounter, stressing in particular the elements of accuracy,
completeness, and confidentiality. It is also important in the early moments of the
triadic encounter for the interpreter to attend to other concerns, such as arranging
the spatial configuration of the parties in the encounter, addressing any discomfort
a patient or provider may have about the presence of an interpreter, or assessing
the linguistic style of the patient, keeping in mind at all times the goal of
establishing a direct relationship between the two main parties.
2) Interpreting. The most basic task of the interpreter is to transmit information
accurately and completely. Therefore, interpreters must operate under a dual
commitment: (1) to understand fully the message in the source language, and 2) to
retain the essential elements of the communication in their conversion into the

Basic Interpreting 53
 target language. Interpreters whose linguistic proficiency (in terms of breadth and
depth) in both languages is very high and who have a solid working knowledge of
the subject matter are more likely to be able to make the conversions from one
language to another without needing to ask for much clarification Those whose
linguistic proficiency is limited can use appropriate strategies to ensure that they
themselves understand the message before they make the conversion and that all
the pertinent information has been transmitted.
3) Managing the flow of communication. In the interest of accuracy and
completeness, interpreters must be able to manage the flow of communication so
that important information is not lost or miscommunicated. Interpreters may also
have to attend to the dynamics of the interpersonal interaction between provider
and patient, for example when tension or conflict arises. The role of the
MEDICAL INTERPRETING STANDARDS OF PRACTICE 14 interpreter,
however, is not to take responsibility for the actions of the two parties but rather to
assist in establishing a communication process that allows the parties to work
things out for themselves.
4) Managing the triadic relationship. The introduction of a third party into the
medical encounter generates dynamics that are inherent in triadic interactions. A
primary characteristic of a triadic, as opposed to a dyadic, relationship is the
potential for the formation of an alliance between two of the three parties. Because
the interpreter is the party to whom both provider and patient can relate most
directly, both have a propensity to want to form an alliance with the interpreter.
The provider and patient often exhibit this tendency by directing their remarks to
the interpreter rather than to each other, which leads to the ‗tell the patient/doctor‘
form of communication. Thus, the interpreter must work at encouraging the parties
to address each other directly, both verbally and nonverbally. The natural tendency
of both providers and patients is to perceive interpreters as an extension of either
their own world or the other, rather than as partners in their own right, with their
own role responsibilities and obligations. For patients, the desire to form an
alliance with the interpreter is heightened because they are likely to perceive the
interpreter as understanding not only their language but also their culture. This

Basic Interpreting 54
 perceived cultural affinity often leads patients to act as if the interpreter were there
as their friend and advocate. For providers, the danger lies in assuming that the
interpreter is part of their world and therefore expecting that the interpreter can and
should take on other functions, such as obtaining a medical history. On the other
hand, when providers assume that interpreters are extensions of the patient‘s
world, they tend to dismiss the importance of their role and ascribe inferior status
to their work. As professionals in their own right, in the interpreter-mediated
encounter interpreters owe their allegiance to the therapeutic relationship and its
goals of quality health care. Their commitment is to support the other two parties
in their respective domains of expertise – the provider as the technical expert with
the knowledge and skills in medicine and health care, and the patient as the expert
on his or her symptoms, beliefs, and needs. The provider offers informed opinions
and options, while the patient remains the ultimate decision maker in terms of
treatment. The role of the interpreter is not to take control of the substance of the
messages but rather to manage the process of communication.
5) Assisting in closure activities. The responsibility of the interpreter in the closing
moments of the clinical encounter is to encourage the provider, when necessary, to
provide follow-up instructions that the patient understands and will therefore be
likely to follow. In addition, the role of the interpreter is to make sure that the
patient is connected to the services required (including additional interpreter
services) and to promote patient self-sufficiency, taking into consideration the
social context of the patient.

Basic Interpreting 55
EXERCISES

1. Find out some videos of court interpreting and business interpreting in video channel
in the internet, i.e. YouTube, and then try to analyze the interpreting process in the
internet based on the handbook of both of interpreting in the chapter above.
2. Try to set up the setting of each constellation of court interpreting (either interpreting
and/ or business interpreting) and practice
3. Please read the oath of interpreting in subchapter 3.3 and then find out the
characteristic that may interpreter establish in doing so.
4. What are 5 subtasks that can be organized in developing the skill in medical
interpreting? Explain.

Basic Interpreting 56
REFERENCE

Durban, Chris. 2011. Interpreting Getting it Right. American Translators Association

Institute of Translation & Interpreting. 2012. Recommended Model General Terms of

Business for commissioned Interpreting Work. Institute of Translation &
Interpreting, UK.

Jin, Ying. 2010. The Conceptual Mapping Model in Consecutive Interpreting Teaching.
Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier.
Mikkelson, Holly. 2000. Introduction to Court Interpreting. Manchester, UK &
Northampton MA: St. Jerome Publishing.

National Association of Judiciary Interpreters & Translators. Modes of Interpreting:

Simultaneous, Consecutive, & Sight Translation. Retrieved December, 1st 2016.
courts.alaska.gov/language/modes.
Pochhaker, Franz. 2004. Introducing Interpreting Studies. Routledge: London and New
York

Supreme Court Of Wisconsin Office of Court Operations. 2004. The Wisconsin Court
Interpreters Handbook: A Guide For Judges, Court Commissioners, Attorneys,
Interpreters And Other Court Users. Retrieved, Dec, 10th. 2016.

International Medical Interpreters Association & Education Development Center, Inc.

2007. Medical Interpreting standard of Practice. International Medical Interpreters
Association. Boston.

Basic Interpreting 57