Lecture 1

Introduction &
Overview

Operating Systems
Objectives
 To provide functionalities of the major
operating systems components
 To provide principles of modern operating
systems. In particular, the course will
cover details of concurrent processes,
multi-threads, CPU scheduling, memory
management, file system, storage
subsystem, and input/output management
Contents
 Process Scheduling
 processes and threads, context switching,
synchronization, scheduling, and deadlock.
 Memory Management
 linking,
dynamic memory allocation, dynamic
address translation, virtual memory, and
demand paging.
 File Systems
 storage devices, disk management and
scheduling
Grading Scheme
 Mid-Term 20%
 Assignments 10%
 Quizzes 5%
 Semester Mini Project 5%
 Final 60%
 Total 100 points

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Course Material
 Text Book
 Abraham Silberschatz and Peter Baer Galvin:
Operating System Concepts, Addison-Wesley
(8th ed.)
 Reference Book
 AndrewS. Tanenbaum and Albert S.
Woodhull, Operating Systems: Design and
Implementation, Prentice Hall (3rd ed.)
What is an Operating System?
 A program that acts as an intermediary
between a user of a computer and the
computer hardware
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving
user problems easier
 Make the computer system convenient to
use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient
manner
Computer System Structure
 Computer system can be divided into
four components:
 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the
system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers
Four Components of a Computer System
What Operating Systems Do?
 Depends on the point of view
 Users want convenience, ease of use
 Don’t care about resource utilization
 But shared computer such as mainframe or
minicomputer must keep all users happy
 Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have
dedicated resources but frequently use shared resources
from servers
 Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for
usability and battery life
 Some computers have little or no user interface, such as
embedded computers in devices and automobiles
Operating System Definition
 OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for
efficient and fair resource use

 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent
errors and improper use of the computer
Operating System Definition (Cont.)
 No universally accepted definition
 “Everything a vendor ships when you
order an operating system” is good
approximation
 But varies wildly
 “The one program running at all times
on the computer” is the kernel.
Everything else is either a system
program (ships with the operating
system) or an application program.
Computer Startup
 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up
or reboot
 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally
known as firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts
execution
Computer System Organization
 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect
through common bus providing access to shared
memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices
competing for memory cycles
Computer-System Operation
 I/O devices and the CPU can execute
concurrently
 Each device controller is in charge of a
particular device type
 Each device controller has a local buffer
 CPU moves data from/to main memory
to/from local buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of
controller
 Device controller informs CPU that it has
finished its operation by causing an interrupt
Interrupt Timeline
Computer-System Architecture
 Most systems use a single general-purpose processor
(PDAs through mainframes)
 Most systems have special-purpose processors as well

 Multiprocessors systems growing in use and impor

vtance
 Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
 Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
 Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing
How a Modern Computer Works

A von Neumann architecture

Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
A Dual-Core Design
Clustered Systems
 Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple
systems working together
 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network
(SAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives
failures
 Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby
mode
 Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running
applications, monitoring each other
 Some clusters are for high-performance computing
(HPC)
 Applications must be written to use parallelization
Clustered Systems
Types of Operating System
Simple Batch System
 The user submits a job (written on a card
or tape) to a computer operator.
 The computer operator place a batch of
several jobs on a input device
 A special program, the monitor, manages
the execution of each program in the batch
 Resident monitor is in the main memory
and available for execution
Multiprogramming
 Needed for efficiency
 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O
devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code
and data) so CPU always has one to
execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in
memory
 One job selected and run via job
scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example),
OS switches to another job
 Multiprogramming
 One job can use the CPU while the other is waiting for I/O

• Small jobs not delayed by large jobs

• Overhead?
• Context switching
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Time Sharing System (TSS)
 Processor’s time is shared among multiple users
 Use cheap terminals to let multiple users interact with
the system at the same time.
 OS does timesharing to give illusion of each user has
own computer
 User can interact during the execution time
 Plus Multiple jobs can be run
 User can
 Interact and React
 Control the path of the program
 Perform interactive debugging
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 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in
which CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can
interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in
memory process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time 
CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves
them in and out to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not
completely in memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed
System
Personal Computing
 Computers are cheap, so give everyone a
computer.
 Initially, OS became a subroutine library
again (MSDos)
 Since then, adding back in memory
protection, multiprogramming, etc.
 Because when humans are expensive,
don’t waste their time by letting programs
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crash each other
Distributed Computing
 Collection of separate, possibly
heterogeneous, systems networked
together
 Network is a communications path
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Network Operating System provides

features between systems across network
 Communication scheme allows systems to
exchange messages
 Illusion of a single system
Special-Purpose Systems
 Real-time embedded systems most
prevalent form of computers
 Vary considerable, special purpose, limited
purpose OS, real-time OS
 Multimedia systems
 Streams of data must be delivered according
to time restrictions
 Handheld systems
 PDAs, smart phones, limited CPU, memory,
power
 Reduced feature set OS, limited I/O
Operating-System Operations
 Interrupt driven by hardware
 Software error or request creates exception or trap
 Division by zero, request for operating system service
 Other process problems include infinite loop,
processes modifying each other or the operating
system
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and
other system components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it
to user
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process
hogging resources
 Set interrupt after specific period
 Operating system decrements counter
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control
or terminate program that exceeds allotted time
Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work
within the system. Program is a passive entity, process is an
active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable
resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter
specifying location of next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads
Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the
following activities in connection with process
management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system
processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process
synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process
communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
 Memory Management
 All data in memory before and after processing
 All instructions in memory in order to execute
 Memory management determines what is in memory
when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer
response to users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are
currently being used and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and
data to move into and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as
needed
Storage Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information
storage
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape
drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)

 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can
access what
 OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media