Introduction to Theory of Computation

Prof. (Dr.) K.R. Chowdhary

Email: kr.chowdhary@iitj.ac.in

Formerly at department of Computer Science and Engineering

MBM Engineering College, Jodhpur

Tuesday 28th July, 2015

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Books

Introduction to Theory of Computation, by Michael Sipser,

Thompson Publication
Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation, by
Hpcroft, motwani, Ullman, Pearson Education
Introduction to languages and Theory of computation, Martin, Tata
McGrawHill
Introduction to formal languages, Automata Theory and
Computation, Kamala Krithivasan, Pearson

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What is TOC?

The TOC is that knowledge of computer science, which does not

change with time & technology.
The course is divided into:
1 Theory of automata: Every process (including computing) can be
divided into discrete sequence of states, where there is always start state,
and there is a final state, with in between states. In this category, we may
consider the computation, and growth of life, and even the planatary
motions. All these systems are automata. The concept of automata was
given by Von Neumann, in 1940s, in the form of cellular automata.
2 Theory of languages: Under this comes all types of grammars -
computers’ languages grammars, spoken languages grammars, and yet
unknown grammars, and all corresponding languages. The concept of
generative grammar was given first time by Prof. Noam Chomsky, in
1956, now a professor of Linguistics at Harvard.
3 Theory of Computation: The contributors are Kurt Godel, Alonzo
Church, Alan Turing, Kleene. However, the maximum contribution is due
to Alan Turing, who gave the concept of Turing machine in his 1936
paper (much before the computers came into existence).

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What is TOC?

TOC attempts to establish a theory to all subjects of cs, just like

classical dynamics to motion of objects
Solvability of a problem ⇒ existence of algorithm.
TOC says that some problems are unsolvable, e.g., Russell’s
Paradox, given by {x|x ∈/ x}
TOC deals with Physical limits of computing, Methodologies of
algorithm design, etc.
CS is : Science of algorithm processing, representation, storage,
transmission of information
Nature of problems we deal with are classified based on their level of
difficulty for computer,i.e., complexity
Application of computer theory: writing programs to construct
compilers, assemblers, OS, ..., and languages

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Meta-Theory and Proofs

Meta Theory: Theory about the theory (mathematics)

- Defines what is computable: A thing is computable if it can be
representable by an algorithm.
- Defines the Limits of computation
Proofs: Establishing that a statement is valid. One approach is: a
statement is valid if there is no counter example. e.g., All even
integers are divisible by 2 is valid. Proof by contradiction: find at
least a single case, where this is not true. Other approaches are:
1 Proofs by Deduction: Taking one value, then iterating is proof by
induction.
2 Proof by Induction: Execution of a sequence of program statements
is deductive proof

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Functions

f :D→R
for a, b ∈ D, f (a) = f (b) ⇒ a = b; f is injection or one-to-one
mapping.
for each b ∈ R, there is always a ∈ D such that f (a) = b; f is
surjection (onto)
A relation which is both injection and surjection is called bijection.
Defining Natural Numbers
0 = {} = φ
0+ = 1 = {elements of 0, set 0 as element}={φ }
1+ = 2 = {φ , {φ }}
2+ = 3 = . . .
...

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Infinite sets

Hence,
i)0 ∈ N
ii)if n ∈ N, ∴ n+ ∈ N
If there is a bijection between any set A and set n ∈ N,then A is
finite, alternatively,
If there is a bijection between any set A and set N, then A is infinite,
You can add any thing into an infinite, it results infinite only.
Example: Hilbert’s Hotel: To accommodate more guests in this
hotel, (say 1), push occupant of room 1 into 2, of 2 into room 3,
and so on. The room 1 is vacated, and ready for new guest.
You can subtract any thing from infinity, it remains infinity. For
example, you can map 40 onwards to infinity. For example,
40 ↔ 1, 41 ↔ 2, 43 ↔ 3, . . .

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Diagonalization Theorem

Theorem
There is no bijection between infinite sets N and R.

Proof.
Assume that f : N → R is bijection, ∴,
N R
0 0.b00 b01 b02 . . .
1 0.b10 b11 b12 . . .
2 0.b20 b21 b22 . . .
... ...
i 0.bi 0 bi 1 bi 2 . . .
Therefore this list of R is exhaustive. bij ∈ {0, 1}
Now consider the number, x = 0.¬b00 ¬b11 ¬b22 . . . Ṡince x is new,
hence the list of R is not exhaustive, this contradicts the assumption.
Thus, the mapping is not bijection. R is uncountably infinite.

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Cantor’s Theorem

Theorem
For f : A → ℘(A), f is not surjection.

Proof.
Assume that f is surjection. Since ℘(A) are all subsets of A,
consider B ⊆ A, as an image of an element of A, which does not
include the element itself. ∴, B = {a ∈ A|a ∈
/ f (a)}
Thus, for every a ∈ A, we have a ∈ B iff a ∈
/ f (a). ∴ B 6= f (a), for
all a ∈ A.
Thus, B is not in the image of f . This contracts our assumption
that we considered in the beginning of this proof. Hence, this proves
that f is not a surjection, and hence not a bijection also.

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Cantor’s Theorem for infinite sets
Theorem
For f : N → ℘(N), f is not surjection.
Proof.
Assume that f is surjection, to ultimately contradict it. Consider
now:
N ⇔ ℘(N)
0 ⇔ {5}
1 ⇔ {2,3}
2 ⇔ {1,2,5}
3 ⇔ {2,4,8}
... ⇔ ...
We call the mapping between 2 and {1,2,5} as selfish, and between
1 and {2,3} as nonselfish.
Next we build a special set D of nonselfish numbers, to arrive at
contradiction. Naturally, D ∈ ℘(N). And, D = {d|d ∈ N, d ∈ / f (d)}.
∴ D 6= f (d) (i.e., D is not any image!).This is contradiction. This
shows that f is not surjection. (Note: Compare this with previous).

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Functions

f :D→R
+ : int × int → int
⊆: S1 × S2 → {T , F }
Total Function: defined over the entire domain
f : x → 2x, x ∈ N, N = {0, 1, 2, . . .}
Partial Function: defined over some domain points only.
f : x → 2/x, x ∈ N
A partial function can be used to model an iteration or infinite loops.
f (x) : if (x==0) then 1 else f(x)

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Strings

a, b, c, d, ... for individual alphabets

x, y , z, w , ... for variable names for strings
We use symbol Σ for alphabet set for languages, e.g. Σ = {a, b}.
Set of all strings on the alphabet set Σ are represented by Σ∗
(Kleene Star).
Strings have only one operation:Concatenation. E.g., x ◦ y ,
ε ◦x = x ◦ε = x
Semigraoups are algebraic systems which are closed on some binary
operation, and have the property of associativity. For example,
hS, ∗i, such that for a, b ∈ S, there is a ∗ b ∈ S.
The semigroup is an algebra. It can be helpful in mapping all the
string operations in computer to this algebra so that they can be
formally treated, without technology boundaries of computers.
Monoid is semigroup with a neutral element. E.g., hM, ⊗, 1i is a
Monoid with multiplication operation.

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Languages

language: set of words (or strings) defined over some alphabet.

These words are simpler form of sentences. For example,
{aab, bba, abbbb, ε , baaa}, {ε , a, bbbb, aaa}, φ are the languages over
the alphabet set Σ = {a, b}.
{0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, 001, . . .} is an infinite language over
Σ = {0, 1}, which contains all the binary words.
L1 = {w ∈ Σ∗ |w has property P}
L2 = {}; language with no sentences
Lε = {ε }; language with single null sentence
Let Σ = {a, b}, then Σ∗ = {ε , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, . . .}
L3 = {a, ab, ba, aaa} is finite language
L4 = {ap | p is prime}, L5 = {ai b i |i ∈ N}
L 3 , L 4 , L 5 ⊆ Σ∗ .
L6 = {ai b i c i |i ∈ N}

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Representation of Languages

Strings oveer Σ∗ are countably infinite. Say N

∗
Languages over Σ∗ are 2|Σ | , which is uncountably infinite, say N.
Think of the mapping, f : N → N. It is not bijection, as N > N. ∴,
some languages cannot be represented ! (what ever tools, and
methods may be used. Also, it cannot be possible to design
machines to recognize some languages, what ever may be
advancement of technology or science!)
Algorithmic problems:
A : Σ∗1 → Σ∗2 ; A is an algorithm which maps input strings to output,
in some complex manner.
if ∀x A(x) = B(x), ∴ A ≡ B, i.e., if two algorithms A and B produce
same output for same input, then they are equal.

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Operations on Languages

Let L1 , L2 be languages over the same alphabet Σ, then there are

following operations on L1 , L2 :
L1 ∪ L2 = {w |w ∈ L1 or w ∈ L2 }
L1 ◦ L2 = {w = xy |x ∈ L1 , y ∈ L2 }
L1 = {w ∈ Σ∗ |w ∈ / L1 }
L1 = (L1 ◦ L1 ) . . . L1 , k-times, with L01 = {ε }
k
| {z }
L∗1 = {w ∈ Σ∗ |∃k ≥ 0, w ∈ Lk1 }. This is called Kleene Star of
language L1 .
L+ ∗ k
1 = {w ∈ Σ |∃k ≥ 1, w ∈ L1 }.

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Conclusion

By study of theory of computation, we reach to important

conclusions in computation, like from thermodynamic we conclude
that perpetual machines cannot be made
The course gives treatment to the subject, independent of
technology.
What problems we can solve by computers?
1 Those, that produce a definite output: e.g., sorting the numbers
2 Those that produce Y/N : Called Membership Problem, e.g., Is
x ∈ A?
3 Another, e.g., given a C program, to determine whether it will halt
on so and so given input? (Halting Problem) - unsolvable.

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Bibliography

John C. Martin, ”Introduction to Languages and Theory of

Computation”, McGraw-Hill.
Mishra and Chandrashekharan, ”Theory of Computer Science
(Automata, Languages, and Computation) ”,PHI, India
Sipster, ”Introduction to Theory of Computation”, Thompson Press.
John E. Hopcroft, Rajeev Motwani, Jeffrey D. Ullman, ”Introduction
to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation”, Pearson Press,
India.
Christos H. Papadimitriou and Harry Lewis, ”Elements of the Theory
of Computation (2nd Edition)”, Pearson Press, India.

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