1 LIMIT STATE PRINCIPLES

1.1 Introduction

The design of a structure for a specific function is usually a two-stage process, involving first
the selection of an appropriate type or form of structure and secondly the detailed design of
the various parts of the chosen structure. In selecting the type or form of structure the
question of the relative costs of different types of structures and of different methods of
construction of the same structure will be of great importance. In this selection the designer
must rely to a large extent on his experience judgment and intuition. A preliminary study of
several types of structure may be necessary.

Having selected the type of structure the designer then has to proceed with the detailed design
of the chosen one, always bearing in mind the factors of safety considerations and cost. In
most cases the aesthetic requirements will have been substantially met in the selection of the
type of structure and will now be completely satisfied by the specification of surface finishes,
colour, etc. Fundamentally, then, the design process consists of finding and detailing the
most economical structure consistent with the safety and serviceability requirements.

In design the following points have to be taken into consideration:

(i). variations in materials in the structure and in test specimens

(ii). variations in loading

(iii). constructional inaccuracies

(iv). accuracy of design calculations

(v). safety and serviceability

For (i) we know that the cube test is a reliable guide as regards quality of concrete from the
mixer but does not guarantee that the concrete in the structure is the same. This is why we
took a higher proportion of the cube strength as a permissible stress when we have quality
control. i.e. a design mix. The same applies to reinforcement, as tests are carried out on small
samples which may or may not be truly representative of the whole. For (ii) we must enquire
how true the loading is. Constructional inaccuracies (iii) are probably accidental. For (iv)

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designers can and do make mistakes in calculations but very often in analysis they assume a
structure will behave in a certain way or that certain conditions exist. Item (v) is dealt with
quite arbitrarily in previous codes -if the structure does not collapse it is deemed to be
satisfactory.

When dealing with the most economical structure associated with safety and serviceability
requirements, the variability exists between construction materials and the construction
process itself. We should be able to state a design philosophy to cope with the various criteria
required to define the serviceability or usefulness of any structure in a rational manner.

The various criteria required to define the serviceability or usefulness of any structure can be
described under the following headlines. The effects listed may lead to the structure being
considered 'unfit for use'.

(i). Collapse: failure of one or more critical sections; overturning or buckling.

(ii). Deflection: the deflection of the structure or any part of the structure adversely affects
the appearance or efficiency of the structure.
(iii).Cracking: cracking of the concrete which may adversely affect the appearance or
efficiency of the structure.
(iv). Vibration: vibration from forces due to wind or machinery may cause discomfort or
alarm, damage the structure or interfere with its proper function.
(v). Durability: porosity of concrete.
(vi). Fatigue: where loading is predominantly cyclic in character the effects have to be
considered.
(vii). Fire resistance: insufficient resistance to fire leading to 1, 2 and 3 above.

When any structure is rendered unfit for use for its designed function by one or more of the
above causes, it is said to have entered a limit state. The Code defines the limit states as:

(i). Ultimate limit state: the ultimate limit state is preferred to collapse.
(ii). Serviceability limit states: deflection, cracking, vibration, durability, fatigue, fire
resistance and lightning.

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The purpose of design then is to ensure that the structure being designed will not become
unfit for the use for which it is required, i.e. that it will not reach a limit state. The essential
basis for the design method, therefore, is to consider each limit state and to provide a suitable
margin of safety. To obtain values for this margin of safety it was proposed that probability
considerations should be used and the design process should aim at providing acceptable
probabilities so that the structure would not become unfit for use throughout its specified life.

Accepting the fact that the strengths of construction materials vary, as do also the loads on
the structure, two partial safety factors will now be used. One will be for materials and is
designated m; the other, for loading, is termed f. These factors will vary for the various limit
states and different materials. As new knowledge on either materials or loading becomes
available the factors can be amended quit easily without the complicated procedures to
amend one overall factor used in previous Codes.

1.2 Characteristic Strength of Materials

For both concrete end reinforcement the Code uses the term ‘characteristic strength’ instead
of 28-day works cube strength and yield stress, although it is related to these. The
characteristic strength for all materials has the notation fk and is defined as the value of the
cube strength of concrete (fcu), the yield or proof stress of reinforcement (fy), below which 5%
of all possible test results would be expected to fall. The value therefore is
fk = fm – 1.64s
Where fm is the mean strength of actual test results determined in accordance with a standard
procedure, s is the standard deviation, and 1.64 is the value of the constant required to
comply with 5% of the test results falling below the characteristic strength, as indicated in
Fig. 1.2.1.

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 Fig. 1.2.1 Characteristic strength

The strength of concrete for design purposes will be based on tests made on cubes at an age
of 28 days unless there is satisfactory evidence that a particular testing regime is capable of
predicting the 28-day strength at an earlier age. These 28-day characteristic strengths
determine the grade of the concrete and it is important to select the correct grade appropriate
for use. The concrete has to provide the durability for the environmental conditions as well as
adequate strength for the loading requirements.

Table 1.2.1 Grades of Concrete

Class Permissible Grades of Cocrete
I C5 C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
II C5 C15 C20

In accordance with Ethiopian Standards, compressive strength of concrete is determined from

tests on 150mm cubes at the age of 28 days. Cylindrical or cubical specimens of other sizes
may also be used with conversion factors determined from a comprehensive series of tests. In
the absence of such tests, the conversion factors given in Table 1.2.2 may be applied to obtain
the equivalent characteristic strength on the basis of 150mm cubes.

Table 1.2.2 Conversion Factors for strength

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 Size and Type of Test Specimen Conversion Factor
Cube (200 mm) 1.05
Cylinder (150mm diameter 300mm height) 1.25

The characteristic cylinder compressive strength fck are given for different grades of concrete
in Table 1.2.3.

Table 1.2.3 Grades of Concrete and Characteristic Cylinder Compressive Strength fck.
Grades of
C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
Concrete
fck 12 16 20 24 32 40 48

In selecting an appropriate grade of concrete, the designer has to determine the environment
and exposure conditions to which the members of the structure will be subjected.

The designation of the reinforcement with its specified characteristic strength is shown in
Table 1.2.4.

Table 1.2.4 Designation of reinforcement

Specified characteristic strength (fy)

Designation Normal Sizes
(N/mm2)
Hot-rolled mild steel All sizes 250
High-yield steel
All sizes 460
(hot rolled or cold worked)

From the table it can be seen that the characteristic strength of high-yield bars is independent
of whether they are hot-rolled or cold-worked. A subdivision is made later in the Code to
determine the bond characteristic which depend on the surface shape of the bar.

1.3 Characteristic loads

For loading we use the ‘characteristic’ load (Fk) as the basis. Ideally this should be

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determined from the mean load and its standard deviation from the mean, and using the same
probability as for the materials we should say that Fk = Fm + 1.64s. The characteristic load
would be that value of loading such that not more than 5% of the spectrum of loading
throughout the life of structure will lie above the value of the characteristic load (Figure
1.4.1).

Figure 1.3.1 Characteristic load

The characteristic dead, imposed and wind loads have the notation Gk, Qk, Wk respectively,
where the upper-case letters denote the total load on a span. Lower-case letters denote
uniform load per square meter, although in design examples for beams the lower-case letters
have been used for a uniformly distributed load, so that Gk = gkl.

1.4 Design Strength of Materials

Design strength of materials will be obtained by dividing the characteristic strengths by the
partial safety factor m, i.e. design strength = fk/m.

m takes account of possible differences between the material in the actual structure and the
strength derived from the test specimens. In concrete this would cover such items as
insufficient compaction, differences in curing, etc. For reinforcement it would cover such

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items as the difference between assumed and actual cross sectional areas caused by rolling
tolerances, corrosion, etc.

Partial Safety Factors for Materials at ULS.

Concrete, c Reinforcing Steel, s
Design Situations
Class I Class II Class I Class II
Persistent and Transient 1.50 1.65 1.15 1.20
Accidental 1.30 1.45 1.00 1.10

Design Strength for Concrete

0.85 f ck
(a) In compression: f cd 
c
f ctk  f  0.21 f 2 3 
(b) In tension: f ctd 
c  ctk ck

Design Strength for Steel
f yk
In tension and compression: f yd 
s

Figure 3.2.2 Parabolic-rectangular stress-strain diagram for concrete in compression

Figure 3.2.4 Stress-strain diagram for reinforcing steel

1.5 Design Loads

We obtain the design load by multiplying the characteristic load by the other partial safety
factor f ; this factor f is introduced to take account of :
(i). possible unusual increases in the load beyond those in deriving the characteristic load.
(ii). inaccurate assessment of effects of loading.
(iii).variations in dimensional accuracy achieved in construction.
(iv). the importance of the limit state being considered.

f varies for different limit states and also for different combinations of loading.

Table 1.5.1 Partial Safety Factors for Actions in Building Structures at ULS.
Design Situation Action Factor,  Favorable Unfavorable
Persistent and Permanent G 1.00 1.30
Transient Variable Q 0.00 1.60
Accidental Permanent G 1.00 1.00

Table 1.5.2 Design values for actions for use in combination with other actions at ULS.
Design Situation Permanent Accidental Variable actions

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 actions actions Principal action All other actions
Favorable 1.0Gk - 0 0
Fundamental
Unfavorable 1.3Gk - 1.6Qk 1.60Qk
Accidental 1.0Gk Ad 1.01Qk 1.02Qk

Combination values: Qr = 0Qk

Frequent values: Qr = 1Qk
Qausi-permanent values: Qr = 2Qk
Where,
Qr = representative value
Qk = characteristic value
Table 1.5.3 Representative load factors, 0, 1, 2.
Action 0 1 2
Imposed
Category A, B 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category C, D 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E 1.0 0.9 0.8
*
Wind 0.6 0.5* 0*
*
Snow 0.6 0.2* 0*
* Values may have to be modified for specific locations.
Category A – Domestic, Residential.
Category B – Offices.
Category C – Congregation areas
Category D – Shopping areas.
Category E – Storage areas

Table 1.5.3 Imposed Loads on floors in Buildings.

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 qk Qk
Category Description Examples 2
(KN/m ) (KN)

Areas for general Rooms in houses, rooms & wards in

domestic & residential hospitals, bedrooms in hotels, 2.0 2.0
A activities kitchens and toilets
Stairs 3.0 2.0
Balconies 4.0 2.0
B Office areas 3.0 2.0
Areas where people
may congregate
C1 Areas with tables In schools, restaurants, reading rooms 3.0 4.0
C2 Areas with fixed In churches, theatres, lecture halls,
4.0 4.0
seats waiting rooms
C C3 Areas for moving In museums. Access areas in hotels
5.0 4.9
people and public buildings
C4 Areas for physical
Dance halls, stages, gymnasia 5.0 7.0
activities
C5 Areas susceptible
Concrete halls, grandstands 5.0 4.0
to overcrowding
Shopping areas
D D1 Retail shops 5.0 4.0
D2 Department stores Areas in ware houses, office stores 5.0 7.0
Areas susceptible to
E Areas for storage use, libraries 6.0 7.0
accumulation of goods

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