1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Design Codes:
Design of reinforced concrete in Kenya has been guided by the British standards BS.
BS 8110 ‘Structural Use of Concrete’ gives guidance for the use of concrete in building
and civil Engineering structures.
BS 8110 is divided into 3 parts: -
Part 1: Code of Practice for the Design and Construction
Part 2: Code of Practice for Special Circumstances
Part 3: Design Charts for Singly Reinforced Beams, Doubly Reinforced Beams and
Rectangular Columns
1.2 Basis of design
Design of reinforced concrete is based on the limit state method. Limit states are states
beyond which a structure can no longer satisfy the design performance requirements.
The two classes in limit state are:
i. Ultimate Limit State (ULS)
If the ultimate state is surpassed, collapse of the member will occur. Ultimate limit
state presents a direct risk to the safety of individuals. ULS to be considered in this
group include; excessive deformations, loss of equilibrium, shear and compression or
tension
ii. Serviceability limit state (SLS)
If SLS is reached the appearance of the member or structure will be disrupted. This
may not cause the collapse of the member or structure but may render it unfit for its
intended purpose. Common SLS considered include SLS due to deflection, due to
cracking, SLS due to vibration amongst others. Serviceability requirements for routine
design are normally met by compliance with dimensional ratios or detailing rules
given in BS 8110.
1.3 Materials properties
In the design of reinforced concrete BS 8110 adopts the criterion that no more than 5%
of sample should have less than a specified strength. This strength is referred to as the
characteristic strength denoted by fcu for concrete and fy for steel reinforcement.
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The characteristic and mean strength fm are related by the expression
𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 𝑓𝑚 − 1.64𝑠. 𝑑
Where:
𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
𝑓𝑚 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑠. 𝑑 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The characteristic strengths of concrete and steel reinforcement are of utmost
importance in the design of concrete structures.
1.3.1 Characteristic compressive strength of concrete
Concrete is a mixture of water, coarse and fine aggregate and a cementitious binder.
BS 8110 defines the characteristic strength of concrete as the value of the cube strength
of concrete. The cube strength of concrete is based on test results on concrete cubes of
dimension 100mm or 150mm cast, cured and loaded to failure in a standardised
compression testing machine. In BS 8110 Concrete is graded according to the
characteristic compressive strength of concrete and designated as C25, C30, C35, C40,
C45 and C50 where the numbers represent the 28th day compressive strength of
concrete in N/mm2.
Another important aspect of concrete is the stress-strain relationship of concrete. The
stress-strain curve of concrete is non-linear and peaks at 0.8 fcu. The curve has no
clearly defined elastic range, a typical characteristic of brittle materials.
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BS 8110 uses a modified stress-strain curve as shown in the figure below, implying a
compressive stress of 0.67 fcu rather than the 0.8 fcu
1.3.2 Characteristic compressive strength of steel reinforcement
Concrete is good in compression but poor in tension, it is thus normal practice to
provide steel reinforcement in zones under tension. Characteristic compressive
strength of steel reinforcement is provided in BS 8110-1:1997 Table 3.1 which is
reproduced in the table below.
Designation Specified characteristic strength, fy N/mm2
Hot rolled mild steel 250
High yield steel (hot rolled or cold worked) 460
A typical stress strain curve for steel reinforcement showing the elastic and plastic
zone is as shown below.
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This actual behaviour of steel as shown in the graph above is complicated and difficult
to model. BS 8110 modifies the curve as to the one shown below making it possible to
determine distribution of stresses in a section.
1.3.3 Partial Safety Factors for Materials & Ultimate Design Strength of Materials
The design strength of concrete and steel reinforcement is obtained by dividing their
characteristic strength by a partial factor of safety 𝛾𝑚 . The material partial safety
factors take into account of the differences between actual and laboratory values, local
weaknesses and inaccuracies in assessment of the resistances of sections. These
differences could be due to factors such as; -
• Segregation during transit
• Dirty casting condition
• Inadequate protection during curing
• Inadequate compaction of concrete
• Wrongly positioned reinforcement
• Distorted reinforcement
• Corroded reinforcement
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Values of 𝛾𝑚 can be obtained from BS 8110-1:1997 Table 2.2 and is reproduced as in
the table below.
Reinforcement (prestressing steel included) 1.05
Concrete in flexure or axial load 1.5
Shear strength without shear reinforcement 1.25
Bond strength 1.4
Others (e.g., bearing stress) ≥ 1.5
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑓𝑐𝑢
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 = = = 0.67𝑓𝑐𝑢
𝛾𝑚 1.5
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = = 0.95𝑓𝑦
𝛾𝑚 1.05
1.4 Loading
The designer of a structure needs to know the type and magnitude of the load the
structure will be exposed to during its design life. Common type of loads that a
structure may be exposed to include: dead loads, imposed loads and wind loads.
Associated with these loadings are the characteristic and design values.
1.4.1 Characteristic loads
These are the loads that may be applicable to a member in a structure. The loads in
consideration include
Dead loads GK-it includes the weight of the structure including finishes, fixtures
partitions. These are values that can be computed based on the densities of the various
materials in consideration. Values of characteristic dead loads can be obtained from
BS648: Schedule of weights for building materials
Live/Imposed loads QK- these are loadings produced by the intended occupancy or
usage of the building. Values of imposed loads are obtained from BS 6399 Part 1
Wind loading WK-Wind loadings acting on the structure. Obtained from BS 6399 Part
2
1.4.2 Partial Safety Factors for Loads
In practice the applied loads during the life of the structure may exceed the
characteristic loads. This could be attributed to factors such as;
i. Calculation errors
ii. Constructional inaccuracies
iii. Unforeseen increase in load
To take into account of this, the characteristic loads are multiplied by partial safety
factor 𝛾𝑓 to give the ultimate design load.
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𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝛾𝑓 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
The partial factors of safety for the various loads can be obtained from table 2.1 of
BS8110-1:1997 reproduced in the table below.
1.5 Durability and Fire Resistance
Durable concrete should perform satisfactorily during the life of the structure. To
achieve this various factors, have to be considered as guided by BS 8110. Some of these
factors include
i. the minimum strength class of concrete;
ii. the minimum cover to reinforcement;
iii. the minimum cement content;
iv. the maximum water/cement ratio;
v. the cement type or combination;
vi. the maximum allowable surface crack width.
vii. Shape and bulk of concrete
viii. Fire resistance
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