Manufacturing Technology-I

Subject:
Class: 4th Sem B.Tech-Mech ‘A’
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 Contents
 Manufacturing process – Introduction

 Casting Process – Introduction

 Advantages & Disadvantages of casting process

 Classification of casting process

 Filling conditions

 Part characteristics

 Applications

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 What is manufacturing?

The process of converting raw materials into finished

products.

Machinery

Tooling

Power

Labor
Product
Raw materials Manufacturing
Process Profit

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 Metal Casting

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 Metal Casting-Applications

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 Advantages

 Parts (both small & large) of intricate shapes can be produced

 Almost all the metals and alloys can be cast

 Faster rate of production

 Simple and inexpensive

 No limit on size and shape of the part to be cast

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 Disadvantages

 Limitations on mechanical properties

 Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes;

e.g., sand casting

 Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals

 Environmental problems

 Improper mould design can lead to casting defects

 Not economical for small quantities

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 General steps for any casting

1. Melting the metal

2. Pouring it into a previously made mould or cavity

3. Allowing the molten metal to cool and solidify in the mould

4. Removing the solidified component from the mould,

5. Finally cleaning it and subjecting it to further treatment

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 Sand casting

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 Sand casting steps

1. Pattern making

2. Mould preparation

3. Core making

4. Melting and pouring

5. Cleaning and inspection

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1 Sand-casting

Mould
2 Sand-casting
3 Sand-casting
4 Sand-casting
5 Sand-casting

Sprue
Pins
6 Sand-casting
7 Sand-casting
8 Sand-casting
9 Sand-casting
10 Sand-casting
11 Sand-casting
12 Sand-casting
13 Sand-casting
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 What is pattern?
A pattern is an element used for making cavities in the mould,
into which molten metal is poured to produce a casting.

• Approximate duplicate of product

• Patterns are made in the shape of the casting
• Pattern Materials: Wood, Plastic or metal.
• One piece or multiple piece pattern
 Factors to be considered in selection of pattern

1. Shape & size of the casting

2. No of castings to be produced

3. Method of molding

4. Complexity of shape

5. Dimensional accuracy of casting

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 Requirements of a good pattern

1. Cheap and readily available

2. Light in mass and convenient to handle

3. Simple in design, for ease of manufacture

4. Good surface finish

5. Secure the desired shape and size of the casting

6. High strength & long life in order to make as many mould

are required.
 Pattern materials

1. Wood – Mahogany, Teak, white pine etc.,

2. Metals- Brass, cast Iron, Aluminum and white metal etc.,

3. Plastic – Polyvinyl chloride, Polyethylene etc.,

4. Gypsum – Plaster of Paris

 Pattern material characteristic

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 Types of Pattern allowances
The difference in the dimension of the casting and the pattern
is due to the various allowances considered while designing a
pattern for a casting.

1. Shrinkage allowance

2. Machining allowance

3. Draft allowance

4. Shake allowance

5. Distortion allowance
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 Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance
When liquid metal cools from its pouring temperature in a casting. It
undergoes the following types of shrinkage

1. Liquid contraction or shrinkage

It occurs when the molten metal cools from the temperature at which it is
poured to the temperature at which solidification occurs

2. Solidification Shrinkage

This occurs when the molten metal changes from liquid to solid state.

3. Solid shrinkage

This occurs when the metal cools from freezing temperature to the room
temperature

The liquid and solidification shrinkage are taken care by the riser
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 Draft Allowances
• A taper angle is provided on the vertical surfaces
• This is done to prevent tearing in the mould when pattern is
removed from the mould
• Draft allowances varies with complexity of the job
• Inner details require greater allowances than outer surfaces
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 Machining Allowances

• The finish of a sand casting is usually poor

• The proper finish n achieved after machining

• Therefore machining allowances are added

• Amount of machining allowance is also affected by the size

and shape of the casting
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 Distortion Allowances

• During solidification, castings get distorted

• Due unequal cooling results in internal
stresses
• Measure taken to prevent the distortion in
casting include
– Modification of casting design
– Providing sufficient machining allowance
to cover the distortion affect
– Providing suitable allowance on the
pattern, called camber or distortion
allowance (inverse reflection)
 Rapping or shake allowance

• To take the pattern out of the mould cavity it is slightly rapped

to detach if from the mould cavity. Due to this, the cavity in
the mould increases slightly. So, the pattern is made slightly
smaller

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 Types of Patterns
Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
 Types of Pattern
1. One piece pattern
– It is the easiest pattern to make
– Solid pattern are generally used for low production use
2. Split pattern
– Divided in to two pieces
– They are appropriate for complex part geometries and moderate volume
3. Match plate pattern
– Two pieces of the split pattern attached to the wood or metal plate
– Holes on plate allow the top and bottom sections to be aligned
accurately
4. Cope and drag pattern
– Similar to the Match Plate pattern, except that the patterns are attached
to different plates
 Different types of Pattern
The most commonly used patterns in foundry are as follows
1. Single piece pattern
2. Split pattern or two piece pattern
3. Multiple piece pattern
4. Gated pattern
5. Match plate pattern
6. Cope and drag pattern
7. Loose piece pattern
8. Follow board pattern
9. Sweep pattern
10. Skeleton pattern
 Cores
 Cores are used in castings with internal cavity
 Cores are placed before pouring the molten metal
 Cores are made of sand and should include allowances for shrinkage,
machining, etc.
 Cores are anchored by Core-prints
 Chaplets are support of the core within the cavity
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 Steps in Sand Casting

Fig: Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.

 Sand Mould Features

Fig: Schematic illustration of a sand mould, showing various features.

 Casting Terms

1. Flask: The mold consists of two halves: cope and drag. The cope is the
upper half of the mold, and the drag is the bottom half.
These two mold parts are contained in a box, called a flask
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mould cavity is
made with the help of pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that
makes up the mould.
4.Moulding sand:
Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a
mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.
5. Facing sand:
The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the
mould cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
6. Core:
A separate part of the mould, made of sand and generally baked, which is
used to create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
7. Pouring basin:
A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten metal
is poured.
8. Sprue:
The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin,
reaches the mould cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into
the mould.
9. Runner:
The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the
gate.
10.Gate:
A channel through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity.
11.Riser

Primary function of riser

It should act as a reservoir of molten metal in the mould to compensate for

shrinkage during solidification

Other functions of riser

1. Promote directional solidification

2. Provide pressure head

3. Indicate completion of mould filling

4. Act as a vent for gases

 Gating system
Gating system refers to all passages or channels through which the
molten metal enters the mould cavity.
Elements of Gating system
1. Pouring cup
2. Sprue
3. Sprue well
4. Runner
5. Ingates (Gates)
6. Riser
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 Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
• Good refractory properties - capacity to endure high temperatures
• Small grain size yields better surface finish on the cast part
• Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to escape during
pouring
• Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to interlocking, compared to
round grains
– Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability

Binders
 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
 Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
 Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to increase
strength and/or permeability
 Properties of molding sand

1. Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion

2. Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through
voids in sand
3. Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with molten
metal
4. Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting
5. Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to make
other molds.

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 Types of Sand Mold

1. Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water;

– “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring

2. Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than clay

– And mold is baked to improve strength

3. Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a green-sand

mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating
lamps
 Testing of foundry sand

• Moisture content test

• Clay content test
• Permeability test
• Strength test
• Mould hardness test

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 Solidification of Casting

• Solidification involves the transformation of the molten metal back into the
solid state.

• solidification process differs depending on whether the metal is a pure

element or an alloy

• A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its freezing point,

which is the same as its melting point.

• Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather than at a single

temperature
Cooling curve for a pure metal in casting

A Pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its freezing

point ( same as melting point)
 Cooling curve of Cu-Ni alloy system
(a) Phase diagram for a copper-nickel alloy system
(b) Cooling curve for a 50%Ni-50%Cu alloy during casting

Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather than at a single

temperature
 Solidification of castings
• Solidification involves two steps that are NUCLEATION and
GROWTH.
NUCLEATION
It refers to the process in which tiny solid particles, called
‘Nuclei’ are formed when liquid metal cools below its liquidous
temperature.
Two types of Nucleation
(a) Homogenous Nucleation
It occurs without the help of foreign particles
(b) Heterogeneous Nucleation
It Occurs with the help of foreign particles ( such as the mould
material, impurities, and added nucleating materials.)
 Grain structure

• At the surface, heterogeneous nucleation

takes place for few layers. These grains are
know as ‘Equiaxed Grains’

• Inside, absence of sand particles leads to

homogeneously nucleated grains. Their
orientation will be form the surface to the
center. These grains are known as the
‘Columnar Grains’
• When a column forms side arms, it is known
as a ‘Dendrite’ and the grain structure is
known as the ‘Dendritic grain structure’

• New nuclei resist the growth of neighboring

nuclei. Hence an equiaxed grain structure is
produced at the center.
• Columnar and dendritic grain structures are coarse and
directional – undesirable in most situations
• This can be changed in practice by adding the nucleating
agents, which produce an equiaxed grain structure in the entire
casting
Nucleating agents for different alloys
Metal Nucleating Agents
Al alloys Ti compounds (TiAl2, TiB2, TiC)
Palin carbon steel Al compounds ( Al2O3)
Stainless steel Ca and Mg cyanides
Mg alloys ZrC, ZrN, Zr oxides
Cast iron Sulfur compounds
 Microstructure of casting

(a) Pure metal (b) alloys (c) through

addition of
nucleation agents
 Directional Solidification

• Growth of partially solid and partially liquid zone from the

outside to inside is know as ‘Directional Solidification’ or
‘Progressive solidification
 Ways to achieve Directional Solidification

• Locate risers away from the section with lower V/A ratios, so
freezing occurs first in these regions

• Use chills at required locations

• Use of blind risers

• Modify the casting design such that it promotes directional

solidification.

• Use exothermic material on the top of riser

• Cover riser with insulation compound/ Pad

 Use of chills
 Chills are massive metal inserts of increased heat capacity and thermal
conductivity, which are placed in the mould to induce directional
solidification and help to over come the effect of shrinkage
 Chills are used to speed up the process of cooling of thick sections of the
casting.

(a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of

the molten metal
(b) The likely results if the chills were not used
 Use of Chills

• Presence of porosity
Cavity- without chill

• Absence of porosity
-with chill
Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples

Sand many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap poor finish & tolerance engine blocks,
cylinder heads

Shell mold better accuracy, finish, higher limited part size connecting rods, gear
production rate housings

Expendable Wide range of metals, sizes, patterns have low cylinder heads, brake
pattern shapes strength components

Plaster mold complex shapes, good surface non-ferrous metals, low prototypes of
finish production rate mechanical parts

Ceramic mold complex shapes, high accuracy, small sizes impellers, injection
good finish mold tooling

Investment complex shapes, excellent finish small parts, expensive jewellery

Permanent good finish, low porosity, high Costly mold, simpler gears, gear housings
mold production rate shapes only

Die Excellent dimensional accuracy, costly dies, small parts, gears, camera bodies,
high production rate non-ferrous metals car wheels

Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts, good Expensive, few shapes pipes, boilers,
quality flywheels
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 Expendable Mold Processes

1. Shell Molding

2. Investment Casting

3. Vacuum Molding

4. Expanded Polystyrene Process

 Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand held
together by thermosetting resin binder

Figure shown the Steps in shell-molding: (1) a match-plate or cope-and-drag

metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing sand mixed with
thermosetting resin.
 Shell Molding

Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the
hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to
form a hard shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles
drop away;
 Shell Molding

Steps in shell-molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to
complete curing; (5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern;
 Shell Molding

Steps in shell-molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled,
supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished; (7)
the finished casting with sprue removed.
 Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages of shell molding:

– Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal and

better surface finish

– Good dimensional accuracy - machining often not required

– Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting

– Can be mechanized for mass production

• Disadvantages:

– More expensive metal pattern

– Difficult to justify for small quantities

 Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make mold, after
which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten metal

• "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of "invest" - "to cover

completely," which refers to coating of refractory material around wax
pattern

• It is a precision casting process - capable of producing castings of high

accuracy and intricate detail
Investment casting
 Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are produced, (2) several
patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree
 Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of
refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree
with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid
 Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted position and
heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity, (6) the mold
is preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal is poured, and it
solidifies
 Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is broken away from the finished
casting and the parts are separated from the sprue
 Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages of investment casting

– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
– Close dimensional control and good surface finish
– Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
– Additional machining is not normally required - this is a
net shape process
• Disadvantages
– Many processing steps are required
– Relatively expensive process
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern which
vaporizes when molten metal is poured into mold
 Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process, evaporative-foam
process, and full-mold process
 Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system, and
internal cores (if needed)
 Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections

Expanded polystyrene
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, casting process: pattern of polystyrene is coated
Inc. M P Groover,
with refractory
Fundamentals of Moderncompound;
 Expanded Polystyrene Process

Expanded polystyrene casting process: (3)

Expanded polystyrene casting molten metal is poured into the portion of
process: (2) foam pattern is the pattern that forms the pouring cup and
placed in mold box, and sprue. As the metal enters the mold, the
sand is compacted around polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of
the pattern; the advancing liquid, thus the resulting
mold cavity is filled.
 Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:

– Pattern need not be removed from the mold

– Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two mold halves are not
required as in a conventional green-sand mold

• Disadvantages:
– A new pattern is needed for every casting

– Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on cost of

producing patterns
 Expanded Polystyrene Process

• Applications:
– Mass production of castings for automobile engines
– Automated and integrated manufacturing systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting operation
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes

• Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a new

mold is required for every casting

• In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many times

• The processes include:

– Basic permanent mold casting

– Die casting

– Centrifugal casting
 The Basic Permanent Mold Process

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for easy,

precise opening and closing

• Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are

commonly made of steel .

• Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory

material, due to the very high pouring temperatures
 Permanent Mold Casting

Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is preheated and coated

 Permanent Mold Casting

Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed, (3) molten
metal is poured into the mold, where it solidifies.
 Advantages and Limitations

• Advantages of permanent mold casting:

– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold results
in a finer grain structure, so castings are stronger

• Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting because of
need to open the mold
– High cost of mold
 Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

• Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high volume

production and can be automated accordingly

• Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain

castings for aircraft and missiles

• Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium, copper-base

alloys, and cast iron
 Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in
which molten metal is injected into
mold cavity under high pressure
• Pressure is maintained during
solidification, then mold is opened and
part is removed
• Molds in this casting operation are
called dies; hence the name die casting
• Use of high pressure to force metal
into die cavity is what distinguishes
this from other permanent mold
processes
 Die Casting Machines

• Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and

keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into cavity

• Two main types:

1. Hot-chamber machine

2. Cold-chamber machine
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal

under high pressure into the die

• High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon

• Applications limited to low melting-point metals that do not

chemically attack plunger and other mechanical components

• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn,
molten metal flows into the chamber (2) plunger forces metal in chamber
to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external

melting container, and a piston injects metal under high pressure
into die cavity
• High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber machines
because of pouring step
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
• Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on low
melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and ram withdrawn,
molten metal is poured into the chamber
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.
 Molds for Die Casting

• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel

• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to

die cast steel and cast iron

• Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens

• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking

 Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages of die casting:
– Economical for large production quantities
– Good accuracy and surface finish
– Thin sections are possible
– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
• Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low metal points
– Part geometry must allow removal from die
 Centrifugal Casting

A family of casting processes in which the mold is rotated at

high speed so centrifugal force distributes molten metal to
outer regions of die cavity

• The group includes:

– True centrifugal casting

– Semi centrifugal casting

– Centrifuge casting
 True Centrifugal Casting

Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular

part
• In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring
rather than before
• Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
• Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal,
etc , but inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to
radially symmetric forces
 True Centrifugal Casting

Setup for true centrifugal casting.

 Semi centrifugal Casting

Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than

tubular parts
• Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed metal
• Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections
than at center of rotation
• Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined
away, thus eliminating the portion where quality is lowest
• Examples: wheels and pulleys
 Semi centrifugal Casting Process

(a) Schematic illustration of the semi centrifugal casting process. (b) Schematic
illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery of the
machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal forces.
 Squeeze casting
• Squeeze casting is a combination of casting and forging in which a molten
metal is poured into a preheated lower die, and the upper die is closed to
create the mold cavity after solidification begins.
 Advantages
 Parts of fine details can be produced

 Solidification under load eliminates Shrinkage and gas porosity

 Very high production rates, compare to die casting

 No gating and riser. Hence higher casting yield

 Produces the high quality surfaces

 Rapid solidification results and fine grain size, which improves

mechanical properties

 The amount of pressure applied is significantly less than used in

forging.
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 Additional Steps After Solidification

• Trimming

• Removing the core

• Surface cleaning

• Inspection

• Repair, if required

• Heat treatment
 Trimming

Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash, fins,

chaplets, and any other excess metal from the cast part

• For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections are relatively
small, appendages can be broken off

• Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing, band-sawing,

abrasive wheel cutting, or various torch cutting methods are
used
 Removing the Core

If cores have been used, they must be removed

• Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of casting as the
binder deteriorates
• In some cases, they are removed by shaking casting, either
manually or mechanically
• In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically dissolving
bonding agent
• Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
 Surface Cleaning

Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise enhancing appearance of

surface

• Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with coarse sand grit or metal

shot, wire brushing, buffing, and chemical pickling

• Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting

– In many permanent mold processes, this step can be avoided

• Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is needed to detect their

presence
 Heat Treatment

• Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties

• Reasons for heat treating a casting:

– For subsequent processing operations such as machining

– To bring out the desired properties for the application of the

part in service
 Casting Quality

• There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in a

casting operation, resulting in quality defects in the product

• The defects can be classified as follows:

– General defects common to all casting processes

– Defects related to sand casting process

 Classification of Casting Defects
1. DEFECTS DUE TO EVOLUTION OF GASES
(Blowholes, Pin hole porosity, Dispersed shrinkage, Blister etc.,)
2. DEFECTS DUE TO POURING OF THE MELT
(Mis-run, Cold shut, Inclusion, etc.,)
3. DEFECTS DUE TO METALLURGICAL FACTORS
(Hot tears)
4. DEFECTS CAUSED BY MOLDING MATERIAL
( Scab, Metal penetration, Flash, Run-out, Lug etc.,)
5. DEFECTS CAUSED DUE TO OTHER FACTORS
( Mismatch, Hot cracking, etc.,)
6. DEFECTS DUE TO SHRINKAGE
(Shrinkage cavity)
Casting Defects
 Defects due to evolution of gases

1. Blow holes

2. Pin hole porosity

3. Dispersed shrinkage

4. Blister
 Blow holes

Causes

1. Excessive moisture in the mould

2. Slag in the metal reacts with carbon

in the metal and liberates CO.

3. Iron oxide on the mould wall reacts

With carbon in the metal and liberates CO.

 Blow holes

Remedial Measures
1. Provide vent holes
2. Avoid excessive compaction of
Mould
3. Avoid excessive moisture in the
Molding Sand
4. Extra care to be taken to segregate slag from liquid metal
5. Avoid using rusted chills and chaplets
 Pin hole porosity

• Large number of uniformly dispersed tiny holes

Causes
Hydrogen is absorbed by the molten metal
Inside the furnace and also inside the cavity

As the melt gets solidified, it loses the

Temperature and liberates dissolved hydrogen
 Pin hole porosity

Remedial Measures
1. Vacuum melting
2. Vacuum degassing
3. Avoid very high pouring temperatures
 Dispersed shrinkage

• Small shrinkage cavities dispersed throughout the casting

Causes
1. Excessive moisture
2. Very high pouring temperature

Remedial measures
Appropriate moisture and pouring temperature
To be taken.
 Blister
• Bubble like bumps
Causes
1. Gases trapped in the cavity cause
depressions on the mould surface.
2. Insufficient strength of mould cavity
At some locations.
Remedial Measures
1. Ensure sufficient and uniform
Compaction of the mould.
 Defects due to pouring of the melt

1. Misrun
2. Cold shut
3. Slag or dross Inclusion
 Misrun

• Molten metal could not fill in thin section of the mould cavity
 Mis-run

Causes
1. Insufficient fluidity
2. Low pouring temperature
3. Too small ingates
4. Low pouring speed

Remedial Measures
1. Increase pouring temperature
2. Increase pouring speed
3. Make ingates larger
 Cold shut
• The molten metal streams from different ingates are not fused
together properly, causing a discontinuity or weak spot.
Causes
1. Longer distance between the ingates
2. Large surface area to volume ratio
 Cold shut

Remedial Measures
1. Use more number of ingates
2. Increase the pouring temperature
 Inclusions

• Undesirable foreign materials present in the metal (oxides,

slag, dirt etc.,)
Causes
1. Impurities present in the molten metal
2. Sand cracked and broken from gating system and mould
cavity
 Inclusions

Remedial Measures
1. Skimming of molten metal before pouring
2. Choosing a molding sand with adequate hot strength
3. Using ceramic foam filters
 Defects caused by molding material

1. Flash
2. Run-out
3. Lug
4. Scab
5. Metal penetration
 Flash

• Molten metal flows into the gap between cope and drag
Causes
1. Sand is not properly compacted along
The parting line
2. Small gap exists between cope and drag
 Flash

Remedial Measures
Molding sand should be leveled properly
along the parting line
 Run-out

• It is different form flash

• Hydrostatic pressure of the liquid metal lifts the cope
• Metal flows along the parting line
Causes
1. The cope rises up during pouring of the metal, due to
hydrostatic pressure of the poured metal
2. Insufficient weight of the cope
 Run-out

Remedial Measures
1. Place some weight over the cope
before pouring of molten metal
 Lug

• Metal solidifies in unwanted cavities surrounding the mould

Causes
Some portions of the cast contour
are broken off in the mould are (after
Withdrawal of pattern)
Remedial Measures
Check for pressure points and
broken off edges before pouring
 Scab

• Liquid metal flows beneath the mould surface and mixes with
molding sand
Causes
1. Low moisture content in the molding
Sand (below 3%)
2. Insufficient clay in the molding sand.
 Scab

Remedial Measures
1. Proper moisture and clay contents are to be taken
 Metal penetration

• Metal goes inside the mould

Causes
1. Larger sand grains
2. Insufficient compaction of sand
 Metal penetration

Remedial Measures
1. Use fine sand grains
2. Reduce casting temperature
3. Apply sufficient compaction of mould
 Defects due to metallurgical factors

Hot tear
Hot tearing is the macroscopic separation due to differential
contraction of the casting during solidification.

Causes for Hot tears

The casting could not undergo shrinkage freely during
solidification, due to casting design or presence of cores
 Other factors Influencing Hot Tears

1. Chemical composition – High sulphur content promotes hot

tearing.
2. Long freezing range
Remedial Measures
1. Use exothermic pads
2. Control the composition-minimize sulphur content in the
liquid metal
3. Use grain refiners (Al-8B, Al-3B etc.,)
 Defects caused due to other factors

1. Mismatch
2. Hot cracking
 Mismatch

• Mismatching of top and bottom parts of the casting

Causes
Misalignment of molding boxes
Remedial Measures
1. Ensure proper alignment of
molding boxes
2. Replace worn-out dovetail pins
by new ones
 Hot cracking
• It is different from Hot tearing
Causes
- Due to uneven cooling conditions
- Differential contraction
Remedial Measures
1. Use chills
2. Use fillets
3. Avoid rough handling
 Defects due to shrinkage

Solidification Shrinkage
• Solidification causes a reduction in volume in almost all the
metals
 Shrinkage cavity

Starting level of molten metal Reduction in level caused by

immediately after pouring liquid contraction during cooling
 Shrinkage cavity

Reduction in height and formation Further reduction in height

of shrinkage cavity caused by and diameter due to thermal
solidification shrinkage contraction during cooling of
the metal
 Shrinkage cavity

Causes
1. Insufficient size of the riser
2. Improper positioning of the riser
3. Premature freezing of liquid metal in the riser
4. Abrupt changes in the casting design
Remedial Measures
1. Design the riser sufficiently large
2. Ensure Directional Solidification
 Buoyancy in Sand Casting Operation

• During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal tends to displace the core,
which can cause casting to be defective
• Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced liquid less the weight of
core itself
Fb = Wm - Wc
where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of molten metal displaced; and
Wc = weight of core