A SELF – LEARNING MODULE ON CALCULUS

FOR SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL

by

Erleo T. Villaros, MS
Education Program Supervisor
Division of Aurora
 Table of Contents

1 MODULE ON LIMITS AND CONTINUITY: ITS BACKGROUND

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background & Rationale
1.3 Assumption
1.4 Motivation

2 MODULE PROPER
2.1 An Intuitive Concept of the Limit of the Function
2.1.1 Specific Objectives
2.1.2 Prerequisite Skills
2.1.3 Materials Needed
2.1.4 Time Frame
2.1.5 Lesson Proper
2.1.6 Self – Test 2.1
2.1.7 Exercise 2.1

2.2 An Introduction to and Formal Definition of the Limit of the Function

(Graphical Approach)
2.2.1 Specific Objectives
2.2.2 Prerequisite Skills
2.2.3 Materials Needed
2.2.4 Time Frame
2.2.5 Lesson Proper
2.2.5.1 An Introduction to the Limit of the Function
2.2.5.2 Limit: The Formal Definition
2.2.6 Self – Test 2.2
2.2.7 Exercise 2.2

2.3 Calculating Limits Using Limit Laws

2.3.1 Specific Objectives
2.3.2 Prerequisite Skills
 2.3.3 Lesson Proper
2.3.4 Self – Test 2.3.A
2.3.5 Self – Test 2.3.B
2.3.6 Exercise 2.3

2.4 One – Sided Limit

2.4.1 Specific Objectives
2.4.2 Prerequisite Skills
2.4.3 Time Frame
2.4.4 Lesson Proper
2.4.5 Self – Test 2.4
2.4.6 Exercise 2.4

2.5 Continuity
2.5.1 Specific Objectives
2.5.2 Prerequisite Skills
2.5.3 Time Frame
2.5.4 Lesson Proper
2.5.5 Self – Test 2.5
2.5.6 Exercise 2.5

3 REFERENCES

4 Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Self – Test and Exercise Problems

 CHAPTER 1
MODULE ON LIMITS & CONTINUITY:
ITS BACKGROUND

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In the study of calculus, the first important concept or idea that must be introduced

is the concept of limit. The limit of a function is the cornerstone of both differential and

integral calculus. It is one of the fundamental ideas that distinguishes calculus from other

areas of mathematics like algebra or trigonometry.

The main purpose throughout the writing of this module is to present the limit

concept and applications to the fourth year high school students in a simple and

understandable language with a collection of exercises and carefully solved problems.

This module is designed as user-friendly and contextualized to the needs and level

of understanding of its readers.

1.2 BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE

The concept of a limit is very important in the study of calculus that you should

understand as very well as possible, and that is easy to do.

This self-learning module will be found helpful to all fourth year students

especially those who will go in the fields of science, business and engineering. This

consists of limits and continuity involving algebraic functions. We will discuss here
intensively the concept of a limit, its properties and operations, and continuity of the

functions.

Specific objectives at the beginning of each lesson are provided so that the reader

could have a full grasp of the entire lesson’s activity. A set of exercises at the end of every

lesson is given to test the student’s understanding of the concept and problem-solving

technique. Each lesson contains carefully chosen examples to facilitate student’s learning

and understanding. Several application problems or real-life problems are also included for

the diversity in learning. A self-test is also provided at the end of every lesson to help

students retain their learning, concepts and skills gained.

Calculus is a mathematical theory, which is based primarily on the concept of a

limit. It is believed that this module will meet the needs and intellect of the students.

Therefore, it suffices to give all of these concepts to the fourth year high school students.

This module will also serve as an effective instructional material.

I believe that mathematics education begins with the pedagogy of mathematics

instruction and learning activities contextualized to the needs, interests and intellect of the

learners.

1.3 ASSUMPTION

There are certain required knowledge and skills that you should know before you

go over with this module. I will therefore assume that you already know the fundamental

concepts in advanced algebra and trigonometry in your Pre-Calculus courses. Basic

algebraic computational skills have to be studied first so that it will be easier for you to
follow the discussion. You must also have known the properties of inequalities, solving

and proving inequalities.

1.4 MOTIVATION

Have you ever wondered how one comes to understand the difficult concept of

calculus? Have you ever wanted to know this concept that leads you to be acquainted with

calculus? How can you do this? Well, it is now possible for you to understand this concept

even if you are not mathematically inclined.

In this module, we will investigate the manner in which some functions vary, and

whether they approach specific values under certain conditions. This analysis will be used

in understanding the concept of derivative and definite integral because the definitions of

derivative and definite integral depend on the notion of the limit of a function.
 CHAPTER 2
MODULE PROPER

2.1 LESSON 1

 An Intuitive Concept of the Limit of a Function

( Tabular and Graphical Approach )

2.1.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson you should be able to

 determine the behavior of the values of the function f(x) as x gets closer and

closer to real number a

 make a table of values for the function f

 support graphically the conclusion on the limit of the function

2.1.2 PREREQUISITE SKILLS

 Basic algebraic computational and graphing skills

2.1.3 MATERIALS NEEDED

 Graphing paper, calculator

2.1.4 TIME FRAME

 3 HOURS
2.1.5 LESSON PROPER

You know that a function may be thought of as a set of ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) or

(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)), with the y-values related to the x-values by some rule.

Let a function 𝑓 be defined throughout an open interval containing a real number

a, except possibly at a itself. We are often interested in the function value f(x) when x is

very close to a, but not necessarily equal to a. In fact, in many instances, the number a is

not in the domain of f, i.e. 𝑓(𝑎) is not defined.

The notion of the limit of a function is suggested by the question: “What happens

to f(x) as x gets nearer and nearer to a (but x a)? Does f(x) approach some number L?”

The question implies that we have to find the “limit of f(x) as x approaches a, or

lim f ( x) .” We then illustrate this concept in the following examples.

xa

EXAMPLE 1 Investigate the values of the function f(x) = x + 2 as x approaches 2

We will study the behavior of the linear function f(x) = x + 2 as we choose the x

values in such a way that they are getting closer and closer to 2 from both sides; that is,

through the values less than 2 and greater than 2. The table below shows the corresponding

values of f(x) = x + 2.

x 1 1.5 1.8 1.95 1.999 1.9999 2 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.05

y = f(x) 3 3.5 3.8 3.95 3.999 3.9999 4 4.0001 4.001 4.01 4.05
 We see from the table that the values of f(x) = x + 2 come closer and closer to the

value 4 as the values of x get nearer and nearer to 2. In this case, we say that the limit of

f(x) as x approaches 2 is 4. Symbolically, we write

lim ( x  2) = 4
x 2

We do not assume that x = 2 but rather x gets closer and closer to 2 from either side

and this is denoted by x  2 (x approaches 2). Note that in Figure 1, as x approaches 2

from values less than 2 ( denoted as x  2 ), x + 2 is approaching 4. Similarly as x

approaches 2 from values greater than 2 ( denoted as x  2+ ), x + 2 is approaching 4.

These results are symbolized as

lim ( x  2) = 4 and lim ( x  2) = 4.

x 2  x 2

We, therefore, say that lim ( x  2) = 4 because

x 2

f(x)  4 from both sides.

Observe that when we evaluate f (x) = x + 2 at

x = 2, we have f(2) = 2 + 2 = 4 and lim ( x  2) = 4.

x 2
Figure 1
Limit of f(x)= x + 2 as x  2

In some cases, it is not true as we illustrate in the following examples.

 x 1 
EXAMPLE 2 Find lim  2 
x 1 x  1
 
 x 1
SOLUTION Notice that the function f(x) = is not defined when x = 1, that is,
x2 1

f(x) does not exist. If we evaluate the function by substitution,

x 1 11 0
we have lim = 2 = . If the numerator and the x<1 f(x)
x 1 x 1 1 1 0
2
0.5 0.666667
0.9 0.526316
denominator both approach zero, we say that the function has an 0.99 0.502513
0.999 0.500250
indeterminate form 0/0 at x = 1. But the notion of the limit says 0.9999 0.500025
that we consider values of x that are close to a but not equal to a. x>1 f(x)
1.0001 0.499975
The tables at the right give values of f(x) for values x that
1.001 0.499750
1.01 0.497512
approach 1 (but not equal to 1). On the basis of the values in the
1.1 0.476190
1.5 0.400000
table, we make the guess that
x 1 1
lim 
x 1
x2 1 2
Example 2 is illustrated by the graph f in Figure 2. We observe that as x 1 from

the left and from the right, f(x)  0.5. x 1

Though the graph of the function y =
x2 1

has a hole at x = 1, which may or may not

appear on your graphics calculator or

computer, we have to remember that x  1

implies that x gets nearer and nearer to 1, but

not equal to 1. We are only interested in the

Figure 2 behavior of the function in a
small neighborhood of x = 1, that is, the set of all nearby points lying to the left of x = 1

and to the right but not in what happens to f(x) at x = 1. Therefore, we say that the limit

exists even if f(x) is not defined at x =1 (see Figure 2).

 Now, let us change f slightly by giving it the value 2 when x = 1, and call the

resulting function g.

x1
x2  1 if x1
g(x )=
2 if x=1

What do you think is lim g ( x) ?

x1

Figure 3
t2  9 3
EXAMPLE 3 Find lim
t 0 t2

SOLUTION The table lists values of the function for several values of t near 0.

As t approaches 0, the values of the function seem to approach 0.16666666… and so we

guess that
t2  9 3
t
t2  9 3 1 t2
lim  ± 1.0 0.16228
t 0 t2 6 ± 0.5 0.16553
± 0.1 0.16662
± 0.05 0.16666
± 0.01 0.16667
t t2  9 3
In Example 3, what would have happened if we had taken
t2
± 0.0005 0.16800
ever-smaller values of t? The table at the left shows the
± 0.0001 0.20000
± 0.00005 0.00000
results from one calculator; you can see that something
± 0.00001 0.00000
strange seems to be happening. If you try these calculations on your own calculator, you

might get different values, but eventually you will get the value zero (0) if you make t
sufficiently small. Does this mean that the answer is really 0 instead of 1/6 ? No, the value

of the limit is 1/6, as we will show below. The problem is that the calculator gave false

values because t 2  9 is very close to 3 when t is too small. (In fact, when t is

sufficiently small, a calculator’s value for t 2  9 is

3.0000… to as many digits as the calculator is capable

of carrying). But if we graph the function, we can see

that as x gets closer and closer to zero, f(x) approaches Figure 4

1
/6  0.166666666667 ( as shown in Figure 4)

Figure 5 shows the graphs of three functions. Note that in parts (b) and (c), f(a) is

not defined , f(a)  L. But in each case, whether f(x) is defined or undefined at x = a, still,

the lim f ( x) = L.
xa

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5 lim f ( x) = L in all three cases

xa
EXAMPLE 4 Let f be defined by

 2 if x2
f (x)  
2 if x2

Find: a. lim f ( x) b. lim f ( x) c. lim f ( x)

x 2 x 2 x2

SOLUTION The graph is shown in Figure 6.

Evaluating the corresponding limits based on the

graph in Figure 6, we have

a. lim f ( x)  2 b. lim f ( x)  2
x 2 x 2

c. lim f ( x) does not exist

x2

because lim f ( x)  lim f ( x) Figure 6 Limit does not exist

x 2 x 2

Study Tip

 The lim f ( x) does not exist if

xa

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x) .
x a  x a
Self – Test 2.1 An Intuitive Concept of the Limit of a Function

Graph the function y = f(x) and determine the lim f ( x) .

xa

1. f(x) = 7, a=4

2. f(x) =  5, a = 4

3. f(x) = 2x + 1 , a = 3

4. f(x) = 7  2x , a =  2

x2  4
5. f ( x)  , a = 2
x2
Exercise 2.1 An Intuitive Concept of the Limit of a Function

Student: Score:

In Exercises 1 through 3, do the following: (a) Use a calculator to tabulate to four decimal

places the values of f(x) for the specified values of x. What does f(x) appear to be

approaching as x approaches c? (b) Support you answer in (a) by plotting the graph of f in

a convenient window.

x 2  8 x  16
1. f ( x)  ;c=4
x4

x 3.0 3.50 3.90 3.99 3.999 5.0 4.5 4.1 4.01 4.001
f(x)

SOLUTION
 x 2  4x  4
2. f ( x)  ; c = -2
x2

x -3.0 -2.50 -2.1 -2.01 -2.001 -1.0 -1.5 -1.9 -1.99 -1.999
f(x)

SOLUTION

3x 2  5 x  2
3. f ( x)  ; c = -2
x2

x -3.0 -2.50 -2.1 -2.01 -2.001 -1.0 -1.5 -1.9 -1.99 -1.999
f(x)

SOLUTION
2.2 LESSON 2

 An Introduction and Formal Definition of the Limit of a Function

( Graphical and Analytical Approach )

2.2.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson you should be able to

 define the limit of the function formally

 illustrate the geometric significance of the symbols  (epsilon) and  (delta)

 support graphically and confirm analytically the conclusion on the limit of

the function

 use the definition of the function to prove the limit of a function

2.2.2 PREREQUISITE SKILLS

 Graphing skills, solving and proving inequalities

2.2.3 MATERIALS NEEDED

 Graphing paper, calculator

2.2.4 TIME FRAME

 3 HOURS
2.2.5 LESSON PROPER
2.2.5.1 An Introduction to the Limit of a Function

Let us now illustrate how to confirm analytically our guess and graphical

interpretation about our intuitive concept of the limit of the function. Our results here will

pave the way for its formal definition.

Consider the table of values of f(x) = x + 2 in Example 1. We see that when x

differs from 2 by  0.001, ( i.e., x = 1.999 or x = 2.001), f(x) differs from 4 by  0.001,

(i.e., f(x) = 3.999 or f(x) = 4.001 ), and when x differs from 2 by  0.0001, f(x) differs

from 4 by  0.0001.

Let us look at the values of f(x) again. We see that we can make the value of f(x)

as close to 4 as we please by taking x close enough to 2; that is, f(x) - 4 can be made as

small as we want by making x - 2 small enough, but bear in mind that x never takes the

value 2.

We will use the Greek letters  (epsilon) and  (delta) in order to precisely express

the above stated condition. Let’s say that for any given positive number , there is an

appropriately chosen positive number  such that, if x - 2 is less than , then f(x) - 4

will be less than . In other words, we say that: Given any positive number , we can make

f(x) - 4<  by taking x - 2 small enough; that is, there is some sufficiently small positive

number  such that

if 0 < x - 2 <  then f(x) - 4 < . (1)

This means graphically that if x lies between 2 -  and 2 +  on the horizontal axis,

then f(x) will lie between 4 -  and 4 +  on the vertical axis. This also implies that the f(x)
can be restricted to lie between 4 -  and 4 +  on the vertical axis by restricting x to lie

between 2 -  and 2 +  on the horizontal axis ( refer to Figure 7 ).

This shows that for any  > 0, we can find a  > 0

such that the statement ( 1 ) is true. We can now state

that the limit of f(x) as x approaches 2 is equal to 4, or

expressed with symbols

Figure 7 lim f ( x)  4
x 2

Let us demonstrate graphically how to choose a

suitable  for a given . Suppose  = 0.1, that is, we want

to restrict f(x) to be between 4 – 0.1 and 4 + 0.1, or

equivalently between 3.9 and 4.1. Figure 8

Note that this restriction on f(x) will result to a restriction on x as well. We can

determine this restriction on x by solving for x in f(x) = 3.9 and f(x) = 4.1 from where we

get x = 1.9 and x = 2.1, respectively. From

Figures 7 and 9, we can see that if  = 0.1, then 

= 0.1.Thus, for  = 0.1, we take a  = 0.1 and state

that

if 0 < x - 2 < 0.1 then f(x) - 4 < 0.1.

This is statement ( 1 ) with  = 0.1 and  = 0.1. If

Figure 9
you have a graphics calculator or computer with

Scientific Notebook or Scientific Workplace, you can get further graphical support by

plotting the lines y = 3.9 and y = 4.1 in the same window as the graph of f (see Figure 9).
 If we choose again any smaller positive value for , we can find another suitable

value for  > 0. Remember that  is chosen arbitrarily and can be as small as desired, and

that the value of  is dependent on the chosen .

ILLUSTRATION 1 Determining the Value of  for Example 1 in Lesson 1

We shall now determine a  > 0 for  = 0.001 such that

if 0 < x - 2<  then f(x) - 4 <  = 0.001

Refer to our Figure 1 or Figure 7 and observe that the function values increase as x

increases.. Thus, the figure indicates that we need a value of x 1 such that f(x1) = 3.999 and

a value of x2 such that f(x2) = 4.001; that is we need an x1 and an x2 such that

f(x1) = x1 + 2 = 3.999 x2 + 2 = 4.001

x1 = 1.999 x2 = 2.001

Because 2 – 1.999 = 0.001 and 2.001 – 2 = 0.001, we choose a  = 0.001 so that we

have the statement

if 0 < x - 2< 0.001 then f(x) - 4 < 0.001

Confirming Analytically the Choice of 

By using the properties of inequalities, we shall now confirm analytically our

choice of . In our solution, we will use the symbols  and . The arrow  means

implies and the double arrow  means double implication, in other words, the statement

preceding it and the statement following it are equivalent.

We wish to determine a  > 0 such that

if 0 < x - 2<  then f(x) - 4 < 0.001

  if 0 < x - 2<  then ( x + 2 ) - 4 < 0.001

 if 0 < x - 2<  then x - 2 < 0.001

This statement indicates that a suitable choice for  is 0.001. We now have the

following arguments:

0 < x - 2< 0.001

 0 < (x+2) - 4< 0.001

 0 < f(x) - 4< 0.001

We have confirmed analytically that

if 0 < x - 2< 0.001 then f(x) - 4 < 0.001 (2)

In our solutions, any positive number less than 0.001 can be used in place of 0.001

as required . Observe this fact in our table of values and in Figures 1 & 7.

Furthermore, if 0 < x - 2 <  then f(x) - 4 < 0.001 because any number x satisfying

the inequality 0 < x - 2<  also satisfies the inequality 0 < x - 2 < 0.001. Thus, from

our solutions for determining a  > 0 and confirming a choice of  for a specific , we

will learn that if for any  > 0 we can find a  > 0 such that

if 0 < x - 2 <  then f(x) - 4 < 

We shall have established that lim ( x  2)  4 .

x 2

ILLUSTRATION 2 Determining the Value of  for Example 2 in Lesson 1

Let us consider now Example 2 and the graph is sketched in Figure 2. The graph of

f is not defined at x = 1. Since we are interested at the values of f(x) with x  1, we can
apply the same argument above and conclude that for any  > 0, there exists a  > 0 such

that

1
if 0 < x - 1 <  then f(x) – 1/2 <  so that lim f ( x) 
x 1 2

We shall now determine a  > 0 for  = 0.01 and confirm analytically our choice of

 such that if 0 < x - 1 <  then f(x) – 1/2 < 0.01.

Figure 2 shows a piece of the graph of f in the neighborhood of the point (1, 1/2). If

x > 0, the function values decrease, but they only approach zero, as the values of x

increase. This indicates that we need a positive value of x 1 such that f(x1) = 0.51 and a

positive value of x2 such that f(x2) = 0.49; that is, we need an x1 > 0 and an x2 > 0, but

x  1, such that

x1  1 x2  1
 0.51  0.49
x12  1 x 22  1

0.51x12  0.51  x1  1 0.49 x22  0.49  x2  1

0.51x12  x1  0.49  0 0.49 x22  x2  0.51  0

x1  0.9608 or 1 x2  1.0408 or 1

Then, 1 – 0.9608 = 0.0392 and 1.0408 - 1 = 0.0408. Since we want a smaller 

and 0.0392 < 0.0408, we then choose  = 0.0392 so that we have the statement

if 0 < x - 1 < 0.0392 then f(x) – 1/2 < 0.01

Note that any positive number less than 0.0392 can be selected as the

required .
Confirming the Choice of  for Example 2

We shall now confirm analytically our choice of  in the preceding solution using

the properties of inequalities.

SOLUTION We want to find a  > 0 such that

if 0 < x - 1 <  then f(x) – 1/2 < 0.01

x 1 1
 if 0 < x - 1 <  then  < 0.01 (3)
x2 1 2

2x  2  x 2  1
 if 0 < x - 1 <  then < 0.01
2( x 2  1)

 ( x 2  2 x  1)
 if 0 < x - 1 <  then < 0.01
2( x 2  1)

 ( x  1)( x  1)
 if 0 < x - 1 <  then < 0.01
2( x  1)( x  1)

 ( x  1)
 if 0 < x - 1 <  then < 0.01
2( x  1)

1 1
 if 0 < x - 1 <  then x  1 < 0.01
2 x 1

Notice on the right-hand side of the statement that in addition to the factor x  1 ,

1 1
we have the factors and . We need to obtain, therefore, an inequality involving
2 x 1

1 1
. We do this by putting a restriction on the  we are seeking. Let us restrict our  to
2 x 1
be less than or equal to 0.05, which seems reasonable because we want a  small enough.

Then

0 < x 1 <  and   0.05

 0 < x  1 < 0.05

  0.05 < x - 1 < 0.05

 0.95 < x < 1.05

 1.95 < x < 2.05

1 1 1
 < <
2.05 x 1 1.95

1 1
 <
x 1 1.95

1 1 1 1
 < =
2 x 1 2(1.95) 3 .9

Thus, 0 < x 1 <  and   0.05

1 1 1
 0 < x 1 <  and <
2 x 1 3 .9

1 1  1 
 x 1 <  
2 x 1  3 .9 

 1 
Remember that our goal is statement (3). We should require     0.01    0.039.
 3 .9 

We have now put two restrictions on :   0.05 and   0.039. So that both

restrictions hold, we take   0.039, the smaller of the two numbers. Using this , we

have the following argument:

 0 < x  1 < 0.039

1 1
 x  1 < 0.039 and <
x 1 1.95

1 1 1
 x  1 < 0.039 and <
2 x 1 3 .9

1 1  1 
 x 1 < (0.039)  
2 x 1  3 .9 

1  x 1 (1  x)( x  1)
   < 0.01  < 0.01
2  x  1 2( x  1)( x  1)

 x 2  2x  1
 < 0.01
2( x 2  1)

2x  2  x 2  1
 < 0.01
2( x 2  1)

2( x  1)  ( x 2  1)
 < 0.01
2( x 2  1)

x 1 1
  < 0.01
x2 1 2

We have therefore determined a  so that statement (3) holds true. Since

0.039 < 0.0392 and it conforms with the restrictions on , we have confirmed our choice of

 for Example 2.
2.2.5.2 LIMIT: THE FORMAL DEFINTION

The limit of a function f(x) as x approaches a is L denoted by lim f ( x) = L if and only if

xa

for any positive number  ( no mater how small ) there

exists a positive number  ( dependent on ) such that

f ( x)  L   whenever 0 < x  a   (see Figure 10).

This means that if the statement lim f ( x) = L is

xa

true, then we can find  such that f(x) can be made as

close to L as we please (i.e. within  of L) by substituting Figure 10 lim f ( x) = L

x a

any value of x within a distance  of a into f(x).

EXAMPLE 1 By applying the definition of the limit, prove that

lim 5 x  4  6
x 2

SOLUTION Since 5x – 4 is defined for all real numbers, any open interval containing 2,

except possibly at 2, is also defined. Now, we must show that for any  > 0, there exists

a  > 0 such that (5x  4)  6 <  whenever 0 < x2 <  (1)

 5( x  2) <  whenever 0 < x2 < 

 5x2 <  whenever 0 < x2 < 


 x2 < whenever 0 < x2 < 
5
 This statement indicates that /5 is a satisfactory .With this choice of , we have

the following argument:

0 < x2 < 

 5x2 < 5

 5 x  10 < 5

1
 (5x  4)  6 <  ( since  = )
5

1
We have, therefore, established that if  = ,
Figure 11 5
Limit of f(x) = 5x – 4 as x  2
statement ( 1 ) holds true. This proves that

1
lim (5 x  4)  6 ( see Figure 11). In particular, if  = 0.1, then we take  = (0.1),
x 2 5

that is, 0.02.

Any number less than /5 can also be used as a required .

EXAMPLE 2 Prove that lim x 2  3x  10  6

x 4

SOLUTION Given any  > 0, we want to find  > 0 such that

if 0 < x  4 <  then ( x 2  3x  10)  6 <  (2)

 if 0 < x  4 <  then x 2  3x  4 < 

 if 0 < x  4 <  then ( x  1)( x  4) < 

 if 0 < x  4 <  then x 1 x  4 < 

 Because we have a factor x  1 aside from the factor x  4 , we need to obtain,

therefore, an inequality x  1 by putting a restriction on  we are seeking.

1
Let   , then
10

1
0 < x4 < =
10

1 1
  < x–4 <
10 10

39 41
 < x <
10 10

49 51
 < x+1 <
10 10
Figure 12
51 Limit of f(x) = x2 – 3x – 10
 x 1 <
10 as x 4

1
Thus 0 < x  4 <  and  
10

51
 0 < x  4 <  and x 1 <
10

51
 x  4 x 1 < 
10

10
   
51
 10 1
Since our goal is statement ( 2 ), we need to choose from  { , }, the
51 10

10
smaller of the two numbers. Using  = , we have the following argument:
51

10
0 < x4 <  = 
51

10
 x4 <  .
51

51
Since x 1 < , we have
10

51 10
x  4 x 1 <  
10 51

 ( x  1)( x  4) < 

 ( x 2  3x  10)  6 < 

We have now proven statement ( 2 ) 

Self–Test 2.2 Introduction & Formal Definition of the Limit of a Function

A. For Exercises 1 & 2, use the arguments similar to those in the illustrations to determine

a  > 0 such that f ( x)  L <  whenever 0 < x  a < .

1. f(x) = 3x + 7; a = 2; L = 13;  = 0.5

2. f(x) = 2x2 + 5x + 3; a = -3; L = 6;  = 0.1

3. Confirm analytically, by using the properties of inequalities, your choice of  in

Exercises 1 & 2.

B. In Exercises 1  2, do the following: (a) Use a calculator to tabulate to four decimal

places the values of f(x) for the specified values of x. What does f(x) appear to be

approaching as x approaches c? (b) Support your answer in (a) by plotting the graph of f in

a convenient window. (c) Prove your answer in (a) by using the formal definition of a

limit.

2 x 2  3x  2
1. f(x) = ; c = -2
x 2  6 x  16

x -3.0 -2.50 -2.10 -2.01 -2.001 -1.0 -1.5 -1.9 -1.99 -1.999
f(x)

x 2  5x  6
2. f ( x)  ; c = -3
x 2  x  12

x -4.0 -3.50 -3.10 -3.01 -3.001 -2.0 -2.5 -2.9 -2.99 -2.999
f(x)
Exercise 2.2 Introduction & Formal Definition of the Limit of a Function

Prove that the limit is the indicated number by applying its formal definition

1. lim 1  1
x 10

2. lim  15  15
x 10

3. lim x  2
x 4

4. lim (1  3x)  4
x 1

1 1
5. lim 
x  2 x 2

6. lim (7  2 x)  11
x 2

7. lim ( x 2  3x  2)  20
x 3

x2 1
8. lim 
x 2 x 4
2
4

x 1
9. lim  2
x 1
1 x

x 1
10. lim 1
x 1
x  2 x
2.3 LESSON 3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

2.3.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson you should be able to

 enumerate the different properties of limits, called the limit laws

 use these properties of limits to evaluate limits

2.3.2 PREREQUISITE SKILLS

 Rationalizing the numerator or denominator and Factoring

2.3.3 LESSON PROPER

In Lesson 1, we used calculators and graphs to determine the values of limits. We

also supported graphically and confirmed analytically our conclusion on the limit of the

function. Lately, we defined the limit of a function and used the definition to prove the

limit. In this lesson, we use the following These five laws can be stated
verbally as follows:
properties of limits, called the Limit Laws, to
Sum Law The limit of a sum is
easily calculate limits. the sum of the limit.
Limit Laws Difference Law The limit of a
difference is the difference of the
Suppose that c is a constant and the limits
limits.
lim f ( x) and lim g ( x) exist, then
xa xa
Constant Multiple Law The limit
1. lim f ( x)  g ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)
x a x a x a of a constant times a function is the
2. lim f ( x)  g ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x) constant times the limit of the
x a x a x a
function.
3. limcf ( x)  c lim f ( x) Product Law The limit of a
x a x a

4. lim f ( x) g ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

product is the product of the limits.
x a x a x a
Quotient Law The limit of a
f ( x) lim f ( x) quotient is the quotient of the limits
5. lim  x a if lim g ( x)  0
x a g ( x) lim g ( x) xa (provided that the limit of the
x a
denominator is not zero)
 EXAMPLE 1 Evaluate the following limits
Limit Laws
and justify each step
x3  2x 2  1
a. lim (2 x  3x  4)
2
b. lim
If we use the Product Law repeatedly, x 5 x 2 5  3x
we obtain the following Power Laws and SOLUTION
Root Laws.
a. lim (2 x 2  3x  4) = lim (2 x 2 )  lim (3x) 
6. lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)
x a
n

x a

n x 5 x 5 x 5

lim (4) (by Laws 2 & 1)

where n is a positive integer x 5

7. lim x n  a n where n is a positive

x a = 2 lim x 2  3 lim x  lim 4 (by 3)
x 5 x 5 x 5
integer
= 2(52) – 3(3) + 4 ( by 9, 8 & 7)
8. lim x  a where n is a positive
n n
x a
lim (2 x 2  3x  4) = 39
integer x 5

(If n is even, we assume that a > 0.)

x3  2x 2  1
b. lim =
9. lim n f ( x)  n lim f ( x) x 2 5  3x
x a x a

(If n is even, we assume that lim ( x 3  2 x 2  1)

x  2
= (by Law 5)
lim f ( x)  0 lim (5  3x)
x a x  2

Special limit:
lim ( x 3 )  2 lim x 2  lim 1
a. lim c  c = x  2 x  2 x  2
(by 1, 2,& 3)
x a lim 5  3 lim x
x  2 x  2

x3  2x 2  1 (2) 3  2(2) 2  1
lim = (by 9, 8, & 7)
x 2 5  3x 5  3(2)

x3  2x 2  1 1
Therefore, lim =  .
x 2 5  3x 11

Observe that we can evaluate limits by substitution. This can only be done when

the limits of the numerator and the denominator are not equal to zero.
 x 1
EXAMPLE 2 Find lim
x 3 x

SOLUTION Using the Law 9 and substituting 3 to x, we have

x  1 lim x 1 3 1 2
lim = x 3 = 
x 3 x lim x 3 3
x 3

EXAMPLE 3 Evaluate the limit of the following.

x x 3  27 x 3 x 1
a. lim b. lim c. lim d. lim
x  3 x  3 x9
x 0
x x 9 x 1
1 x

SOLUTIONS For problems a, c and d, we have to rationalize first the numerator or the

denominator. For problem b, we need to factor the numerator. Then, we evaluate the limit.

x x x Study Tips
a. lim = lim 
x 0 x 0
x x x
Basic Types in Factoring
x x When the remainder in any division problem is
= lim . Since x  0, we
x 0 x zero, the divisor and the quotient are factors of the

can cancel out x. Thus, dividend.

 Common Monomial : ab + ac = a( b+c )
lim x  0  0
x 0  Difference of Two Squares: a2 – b2 = (a – b)(a + b)
 Sum of Two Cubes: a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)
x  27
3
b. lim ==  Difference of Two Cubes :
x  3 x  3

a3  b3 = (a  b)(a2 + ab + b2)
( x  3)( x  3x  9)
2
lim .  Perfect Square Trinomial: a2  2ab + b2 = (a  b)2
x 3 x3
 General Trinomial:
Since x  -3, x + 3  0. Thus,
acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd = (ax + b)(cx + d)
we have

lim ( x 2  3x  9) = (-3)2 – 3(-3) + 9 = 27

x 3
 x 3 x 3 x 3 x9
c. lim = lim   lim .
x 9 x9 x 9 x  9
x  3 x9 ( x  9)( x  3)

Since x  9, x – 9  0. We get

1 1 1
lim  
x 9
x 3 9 3 6

x 1 x 1 1 x ( x  1)(1  x ) ( x  1)(1  x )
d. lim = lim   lim  lim
x 1
1 x x 1
1 x 1 x x 1 1 x x 1  ( x  1)

= lim  (1  x )  (1  1)  2
x 1

EXAMPLE 4 Given

x 2 x 2
f ( x)  , evaluate lim
x4 x 4 x  4

x 2
SOLUTION The Limit Laws cannot be applied to the quotient because
x4

lim x  4  0 . To simplify the quotient, we rationalize first the numerator by multiplying

x 4

the numerator and denominator by x  2 . The solution is as follows:

x 2 ( x  2)( x  2) ( x  4) 1
lim = lim = lim = lim
x 4 x4 x  4
( x  4)( x  2) x  4
( x  4)( x  2) x  4
x 2

lim 1
x4
=
lim ( x  2)
x4

1
= (Special Limit (a) & Law 1)
lim x  lim 2
x4 xa

1
= (Special Limit (a) & Law 9)
lim x  2
x4

1
= 
4
 Study Tips
Rationalizing the Denominator or Numerator
In working with the limit of a quotient involving radicals, it is often convenient
to move the radical expression from the denominator to the numerator, or vice versa.
 If the numerator or denominator is a monomial containing x , multiply the

x 2
expression by . Since x x = x = x.
x

 If the numerator or denominator is a binomial containing x + y , multiply

x y
the expression by . Since, (x + y)(x – y) = x2 – y2.
x y

 If the numerator or denominator is a binomial containing x  y , multiply the

x y
expression by . Since, (x – y) (x + y) = x2 – y2.
x y

 If the numerator or denominator is a binomial containing 3 x + 3 y , multiply the

3
x 2  3 xy  3 y 2
expression by Since, (x + y)(x2 – xy + y2) = x3 + y3.
3
x  xy  y
2 3 3 2

 If the numerator or denominator is a binomial containing 3 x  3 y , multiply the

3
x 2  3 xy  3 y 2
expression by Since, (x  y)(x2 + xy + y2) = x3 + y3.
3
x  xy  y
2 3 3 2

 If the numerator or denominator is a trinomial containing 3 x 2  3 xy  3 y 2 ,

3
x 3 y
multiply the expression by Since, (x2 – xy + y2)(x + y)= x3 + y3.
3
x y 3

 If the numerator or denominator is a trinomial containing 3 x 2  3 xy  3 y 2 ,

3
x 3 y
multiply the expression by Since, (x2 + xy + y2)(x  y)= x3  y3.
3
x y 3
Self-Test 2.3.A CALCULATING LIMIT USING LIMIT LAWS

In items 1-10, find the limit and, when appropriate, indicate the limit laws being applied.

x 2  2x  1
1. lim
x  1 x 1

3x 2  5 x  2
3. lim
x 2 x2

x2  4
5. lim
x 2 x 2  8 x  12

x 2  14 x  49
7. lim
x 7 x3

x 4  16
9. lim
x  2 4  x 2

x3
2. lim
x 3 x  x  15
2

x 2  6x  9
4. lim
x 3 x3

12 x 2  x  1
6. lim
x  1
4 4x  1

 1
8. lim x1  
x 0
 x

x4 1
10. lim
x 1
x 1
11. Charle’s law of gases states that if the pressure remains constant, then the relationship
between the volume V that a gas occupies and its temperature T (in oC) is given by
 1 
V  V0 1  T
 273 
where the temperature T = -273oC is absolute zero. Evaluate lim V .
T 273

12. A drove of 100 goats is relocated to a small island in Aurora Province. The drove

increases rapidly, but eventually the food resources of the island dwindle and the

population declines. Suppose that the number N(t) of goats present after t years is given by

N (t )  t 2  21t  100 . Evaluate lim N (t ) .

t10

13. A population of flies is growing in a large container. The number of flies P ( in

hundreds ) after t weeks is given by

P(t )  t 4  15t 2  5 . Evaluate lim P .

t 9

Self-Test 2.3.B LIMIT LAWS

Evaluate the limit, if it exists. Indicate the limit laws being applied, when appropriate.

x 2  2x  1 x2
1. lim 2. lim
x 1 x 1 x 2 x  4x  4
2

x 2  6x  8 x 4
3. lim 4. lim
x 2 x2 x 4 x4

x 1 2 x  18
5. lim 6. lim
x 1
1 x x 9
2 x 6

3
x 1 ( x  1) 3  1
7. lim 8. lim
x 1 x 1 x 0 x

1 3 x x 8
9. lim 10. lim 3
x  1 x  1 x 8
x 2
 ( x  1) 5 2x  4
11. lim 12. lim
x 1 x 5  1 x 2 x3  2x 2

x 4  4 x 3  3x 2  4 x  4
13. lim
x 1 x 1

14. The temperature T (in oC) at which water boils may be approximated by the formula
T = 100.862 – 0.0415 h  431.03
where h is the elevation (in meters above sea level). Evaluate lim T .
h  4 , 000

15. According to Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, the length of an object depends on

its velocity v. Einstein also proved that the mass m of an object is related to v by the
formula

v2
m  m0 1 
c2
where m0 is the mass of the object at rest. Investigate lim m and use the result to
vc

justify that c is the ultimate speed in the universe.

Exercise 2.3 LIMIT LAWS

Student: Score:

Evaluate the limit.

x2  x  2
1. lim ( x 3  4 x 2  6 x  5) 2. lim
x 3 x 1
2 2x  5

SOLUTION SOLUTION
 (3  y ) 3  27 x 2
3. lim 4. lim
y 0 y x 2 x 2  2x

SOLUTION SOLUTION

x2 2
5. lim
x 0 x

SOLUTION
2.4 LESSON 4 ONE-SIDED LIMITS

 Right – Hand Limits

 Left – Hand Limits

 Two – Sided Limits

2.4.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson you should be able to

 evaluate the limit of a function f(x) as x approaches a certain value from

either side

 sketch the graph and examine the behavior of the function f(x) as x

approaches a certain value

2.4.2 PREREQUISITE SKILLS

 Algebraic computational and graphing skills

2.4.3 TIME FRAME

 4 HOURS

2.4.4 LESSON PROPER

We discussed in Lesson 1 that f(x) may approach two values as x approaches a

certain number from the left and from the right (see Figure 5). In such a case, the limit is

not defined or does not exist but the right – hand and left – hand limits exist.

In this lesson, we will discuss the behavior of the function as x approaches from

either side to a certain value.

  The Right – Hand Limit

The right – hand limit of a function f(x) at a point a is the limit of the function at a

as x approaches a from decreasing values of a, (i.e. as x approaches a from the right). We

write the right – hand limit by the notation

lim f ( x)  L or f(x) = L as x  a+
x a

 The Left – Hand Limit

The left – hand limit of a function f(x) at a point a is the limit of the function at a

as x approaches a from increasing values of a, (i.e. as x approaches a from the left). We

write the left – hand limit by the notation

lim f ( x)  L or f(x) = L as x  a
x a

 The Two – Sided Limit

The limit exists if and only if the right – hand and the left – hand limits both exist

and are equal to L. Thus, we say that the function has two – sided limit.

lim f ( x)  L  lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  L

x a x a  x a

Example 1 Given a signum function

1 if x0 Evaluate
 lim sgn x , lim sgn x , and lim sgn x
sgn x  0 if x0 x 0 x 0 x 0

 1 x0
 if

SOLUTION The graph is shown in Figure 13.

Evaluating the limit, yields

lim sgn x = 1 and lim sgn x = 1 Figure 13

x 0  x 0
The limit does not exist since the left hand and the right hand limits are not equal. Thus,

lim sgn x does not exist.

x 0

Example 2 The Greatest Integer Function is

defined by 〚x〛= the largest integer that is less

than or equal to x. (For instance, 〚4〛= 4,

〚4.8〛= 4, 〚〛= 3, 〚 2 〛= 1). Show that

Figure 14
lim 〚x〛does not exist.
x 3

SOLUTION The graph of the greatest integer function is shown in Figure 14. Since

〚x〛= 3 for 3  x < 4, we have lim 〚x〛= lim 3  3 . Since 〚x〛= 2 for 2  x < 3, we
x 3 x 3

have lim 〚x〛 = lim 2  2 . Because these one - sided limits are not equal, lim
x 3 x 3 x 3

〚x〛does not exist.

Example 3 Evaluate the limit of f ( x)  x as x

approaches 0 from the right.

SOLUTION The graph of f ( x)  x is sketched in

Figure 15. Notice that the function is defined only for Figure 15 Function with a
Right-Hand Limit but no
x  0. Now, evaluating the limit of the function as x Left-Hand limit
approaches 0 from the right, we get lim x  0  0.
x 0 

Example 4 Let f be defined by

2 if x2
f (x)  
 4 if x2

(a) Sketch the graph of f

(b) Find lim f ( x) and lim f ( x)

x 2 x 2

SOLUTION

(a). The graph of f is sketched in Figure 16. Figure 16 Function with a Left-
Hand Limit but no Right-
(b). We use f(x) = - 4 to evaluate the limit as x Hand Limit
approaches 2 from the left. Hence,

lim f ( x) = - 4
x 2 

Notice that f(x) = 2 for x = 2. Now,

Study Tip
evaluating the limit of f(x) as x
 The lim f ( x) = L if and only if
xa approaches 2 from the right, we have
lim f ( x)  L  lim f ( x) . lim f ( x) does not exist
x a  x a
x 2 

Now, think of this function g defined by

a) How does the graph of g look
x if x0 like?
g ( x)   b) What do you think is lim g ( x) ?
3 if x0 x0
Self - Test 2.4 ONE – SIDED LIMITS

In problems 1 – 5, evaluate the limit as x approaches a from its either side.

1. y = 3x + 2, a = -1 2. f(x) = x2 + x + 4 , a = 0
x 2  2x  1 x2 1
3. y , a = 1 4. f ( x)  , a = 1
x 1 x 1
5. f ( x)  x x  1 , a = 3

In exercises 6 through 10, sketch the graph of the function and find the indicated limit if it

exists; if the limit does not exist, state the reason.

2 if x 1

6. f (x)   1 if x 1 (a) lim f ( x) (b) lim f ( x) (c) lim f ( x)
x 1 x 1
 3
x1

 if x 1

t  4 if t  4
7. f (t )   (a) lim f (t ) (b) lim f (t ) (c) lim f (t )
4  t if t  4 t 4 t 4 t 4

x 2 if x  2
8. f ( x)   (a) lim f ( x) (b) lim f ( x) (c) lim f ( x)
8  2 x if x  2 x 2 x 2 x2

9. f ( x)  x  5 (a) lim f ( x) (b) lim f ( x) (c) lim f ( x)

x 5 x 5 x5

x 2  4 if x2

10. f ( x)  4 if x2 (a) lim f ( x) (b) lim f ( x) (c) lim f ( x)
x 2 x 2
4  x 2
x2

 if x2
In Exercise 11, evaluate the limits if they exist in parts (a) to (k) from the graph of the

function f sketched below.

11. The domain of f is -1, 5.

(a). lim f ( x) (b). lim f ( x) (c). lim f ( x)

x 1 x 0  x 0 

(d). lim f ( x) (e). lim f ( x) (f). lim f ( x)

x0 x 2  x 2 

(g). lim f ( x) (h). lim f ( x) (i). lim f ( x)

x2 x 3 x 3

(j). lim f ( x) (k). lim f ( x)

x3 x 5

In Exercise 12, sketch the graph of some function f satisfying the given properties.

12. The domain of f is -4, 4. f(-4) = 3; f(-2) = -3; f(0) = 1; f(2) = -1; f(4) = 0;

lim f ( x)  0 ; lim f ( x)  1; lim f ( x)  1; lim f ( x)  4 ; lim f ( x)  1 ;

x 4  x 2 x 0 x 0  x 2

lim f ( x)  0
x 4 
Exercise 2.4 ONE – SIDED LIMITS

Student: Score:

Solve the following problems.

1 x 1
1. Given the split function defined by f ( x)  

 1 x  1
Sketch the graph and evaluate
lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) and lim f ( x)
x 1 x 1 x1

Solution

2. Given the function f ( x)  4  x , x  2.

2

Sketch the graph and evaluate

lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) and lim f ( x)
x 2  x 2  x2

Solution

x 2 if x  2 
 
3. Given f ( x)  ax  b if  2  x  2 . Find the values of a and b such that
2 x  6 2 x 
 if 

lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) both exist.

x 2 x2
In Exercise 4, evaluate the limits if they exist in parts (a) to (k) from the graph of the

function f sketched below.

4. The domain of f is 0, 5.

(a). lim f ( x) (b). lim f ( x) (c). lim f ( x)

x 0 x 1 x 1

(d). lim f ( x) (e). lim f ( x) (f). lim f ( x)

x1 x 2  x 2 

(g). lim f ( x) (h). lim f ( x) (i). lim f ( x)

x2 x 4 x 4 

(j). lim f ( x) (k). lim f ( x)

x4 x 5

In Exercise 5, sketch the graph of some function f satisfying the given properties.

5. The domain of f is -1, 3. f(-1) = -2; f(0) = 0; f(1) = 2; f(2) = 4; f(3) = 1;

lim f ( x)  2 ; lim f ( x)  0 ; lim f ( x)  3 ; lim f ( x)  4 ; lim f ( x)  4 ;

x 1 x 0 x 0 x 1 x 2 

lim f ( x)  0 ; lim f ( x)  5
x 2  x 3
2.5 LESSON 5 CONTINUITY

2.5.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson you should be able to

 sketch the graphs of continuous and discontinuous functions

 define continuity, left- and right- hand continuity, and continuity on closed

and half-open interval

 apply the concepts of limits and continuity to solve real world problems

2.5.2 PREREQUISITE SKILLS

 Algebraic computational and graphing skills

2.5.3 TIME FRAME

 3 HOURS

2.5.4 LESSON PROPER

We noticed in Lessons 1 – 4 that the limit of a function as x approaches a can often

be found simply by calculating the value of the function at a. Functions with this property

are called continuous at a.

We can intuitively understand the concept on continuity of a function by just

informally saying that a function is said to be continuous on an interval if there is no
interruption in the graph of f on that given interval, that is we can trace out the graph of
the function without lifting the ball pen. This means that the graph of f has no hole, jump,
gap or break. Otherwise, the function is discontinuous and we say that the location of its
discontinuity is at the x – coordinate where we encounter the gap, hole, jump or break of
the function.
 Analyze the following different graphs of a function with discontinuities and
continuity on a given interval as illustrated in Figure 17.

Figure 17
 We see from Figure 17 that a function may be continuous or discontinuous at a

certain x – coordinate (x = a) on an interval. We now discuss the three reasons why a

certain function has discontinuity at x = a.

x2  4 1
First, consider the functions f ( x)  and g ( x)  2 . The graphs of f and g
x2 x

are illustrated in Figure 18.

Figure 18

We see from the graphs that f and g are discontinuous at x = 2 and 0, respectively.

We now say that a function is discontinuous if f is not defined for some x – value.

x 2  1 if x 1
Second, study the split function f ( x)   . Figure 19 shows
 x  1 if x 1

the graph of f.

What do you notice on the graph? The

Figure 19
limit as x approaches 1 does not exist. This is

because lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)

x 1 x 1

That is, the left-hand limit and the right-hand

limits are not equal.

 Finally, we demonstrate the third reason by the split function

3 x2
 ( x  2) if
f ( x)   2
3 if x2

We can see from Figure 20 that f(2) = 3

and lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  6 . Thus, the third

x 2  x 2

reason for discontinuity of a function at x = a is

that lim f ( x)  f (a) .

x a

We are now ready to use these three

Figure 20
reasons to formally define continuity of a function.

Definition A function f is continuous at a number a if

lim f ( x)  f (a)
xa

If it is not continuous at a, we say that f is discontinuous at a, or f has a

discontinuity at a. Notice that the definition implicitly requires three things if f is

continuous at a:

1. f(a) is defined ( that is, a is the domain of f )

2. lim f ( x) exists
xa

3. lim f ( x)  f (a)
xa

If one or more of this conditions are not satisfied, we say that the function is

discontinuous at x = a.
Example 1 Discuss the continuity of f(x) = 2 – x3 at x = 1.

SOLUTION We apply the definition of the continuity to prove

that of f(x) = 2 – x3 is continuous at x = 1. We have

i. f ( 1 ) = 2 – ( 1 )3 = 2 – 1 = 1
Figure 21 Graph of
ii. lim (2  x 3 )  2  (1) 3  1 f(x) = 2 – x3
x1

iii. lim (2  x 3 )  f (1)

x1

Thus, f(x) = 2 – x3 is continuous at x = 1 ( see Figure 21 ).

x2 1
Example 2 Is f ( x)  continuous at x  1?
x 1

SOLUTION The function is undefined if the denominator x – 1 is zero , that is if x = 1.

To prove that this function is discontinuous at x = 1,

using the definition of continuity ( see Figure 22 ),

we get i. f(1) is undefined since 1 is not in the

domain of f
x2 1 ( x  1)( x  1)
lim  lim  lim ( x  1)  1  1  2
ii. x1 x  1 x1 x 1 x 1

Figure 22 Discontinuous at x = 1 iii. lim f ( x)  f (1)

x 1

Definition of Right-Hand Continuity Example 3 The function g is

The function f is said to be continuous from the

right at the number a if and only if the defined by g ( x)  9  x 2 . Prove
following three conditions are satisfied:
1. f(a) exists; that this function g is continuous on
2. lim f ( x) exists;
x a the closed interval [-3, 3].
3. lim f ( x) = f(a)
x a
SOLUTION The function g is
 continuous at every number x for
Definition of Left-Hand Continuity
which 9 – x2 > 0. Hence, g is
The function f is said to be continuous from the
left at the number a if and only if the following
continuous at every number in an
three conditions are satisfied:
1. f(a) exists;
open interval (-3, 3). Evaluating
2. lim f ( x) exists;
x a

3. lim f ( x) = f(a) lim g ( x) and lim g ( x) , we have

x a  x 3 x 3

lim g ( x) = lim 9  x 2
x 3 x 3
Definition of Continuity on Closed Interval
A function f whose domain includes the closed = 0 = g( -3 )
interval [a, b] is said to be continuous on [a, b]
if and only if it is continuous on the open interval and, lim g ( x) = lim 9  x 2
(a, b), as well as continuous from the right at a x 3 x 3

and continuous from the left at b.

= 0 = g(3)

Thus, g is continuous from the right at x = –3 and

continuous from the left at x = 3. Hence, by the

Definition of Continuity on a Closed Interval, g is

continuous on the closed interval [-3, 3]. The graph

of g appears in Figure 23.

Figure 23

Definition of Continuity on a Half – Open Interval

i. The function whose domain includes the interval half-open on the right [a, b) is
continuous on [a, b) if and only if it is continuous on the open interval (a, b) and
continuous from the right at a.
ii. The function whose domain includes the interval half-open on the left (a, b] is
continuous on (a, b] if and only if it is continuous on the open interval (a, b) and
continuous from the left at b.
Example 4 Determine the largest interval (or union of intervals) on which the following

function is continuous:

9  x2
f ( x) 
x2

SOLUTION We first determine the domain f. The function is defined everywhere except

when x = 2 or when 9 – x2 < 0, i. e., when x > 3 or x < -3. Therefore, the domain of f

is [-3, 2) U (2, 3]. Because

lim f ( x)  0 and lim f ( x)  0

x 3 x 3

= f(-3) = f(3)

f is continuous from the right at x = -3 and from the

left at x = 3. Furthermore, f is continuous on the open

intervals (-3, 2) and (2, 3). Therefore, f is continuous

on [-3, 2) and (2, 3]. (refer to Figure 24) 

Figure 24
Self - Test 2.5 CONTINUITY

Discuss the continuity at the indicated value of a and sketch the graph of y = f(x).

1. f(x) = x2 – 4x + 4, a = 2

SOLUTION

1
2. f ( x)  , a = -2
x2

SOLUTION

x  2 if x 1

3. f ( x)  2 if x 1
2  x x 1
 if

SOLUTION
Exercise 2.5 CONTINUITY

Student: Score:

In exercises 1 through 5, sketch the graph of the function. By observing where there is a

break or gap, determine the number at which the function is discontinuous, and explain

why the definition of continuous is not satisfied at this number.

x2  x  6 x 2  3x  4
1. f ( x)  2. g ( x) 
x3 x4


 2
 x  5x  6 if x2 x
3. f ( x)   4. f ( x) 
 x2 x
  1 if x2

x9
5. f ( x) 
x 3

6. Suppose at t meters, r(t) meters is the radius of a circular oil spill from a ruptured

4t 2  20 if 0  t  2
tanker and r (t )   .
16t  4 if t  2

Prove that r is continuous at 2.

7. According to Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, no particle with positive mass can travel

faster than the speed of light. The theory specifies that if m(v) is the measure of the

mass of a particle moving with a velocity of measure v, then

 m0
m(v ) 
2
v
1  
c

where m0 is the constant measure of the particle’s rest mass relative to some reference

frame, and c is the constant measure of the speed of light. Determine the largest

interval on which m is continuous.

In Exercises 8 through 10, sketch the graph of the function f that satisfies the given

properties.

8. f is continuous on (, 2] and (2, +); lim f ( x)  4 ; lim f ( x)  3 ;

x 0 x 2 

lim f ( x)   ; lim f ( x)  0
x 2  x 5

9. f is continuous on (, 3], ( 3, 3), and [3, +); lim f ( x)  2 ; lim f ( x)  0 ;

x 5 x 3

lim f ( x)  4 ; lim f ( x)  1 ; lim f ( x)  0 ; lim f ( x)  5 ;

x 3 x 0 x 3 x 3

lim f ( x)  0
x 4

10. f is continuous on (, 0) and [0, +); lim f ( x)  0 ; lim f ( x)  3 ;

x 4 x 0 

lim f ( x)  3 ; lim f ( x)  2
x 0  x 4
 REFERENCES

Comandante, Felipe L. Jr. Calculus Made Easy for High School Students. Mandaluyong
City: Cacho Hermanos, Inc., 2002.

Edwards, C. H. Jr., and Penny, David E. Calculus and Analytic Geometry. New Jersey:
Prentice – Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1982.

Leithold, Luois. The Calculus 7. Singapore: Addison - Wesley Publishing Company,

Inc., 2002.

Nocon, Ferdinand P., et. al., Differential Calculus: Made Simple for Filipinos.
Mandaluyong City: Cacho Hermanos , Inc., 2001.

Stewart, James. Calculus Concepts and Contexts, Second Edition. Singapore: Thomson
Learning Asia, Brooks/Cole, 2001.

Taylor, Claudia D. & Gilligan, Lawrence. Applied Calculus, Fourth Edition. California:
Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1996
Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Self – Test and Exercise Problems

Self – Test 2.1

1. 5.

lim f ( x)  7 lim f ( x)  4
x 2
x 4

3.

lim f ( x)  lim (2 x  1)  7
x 3 x 3

Exercise 2.1

1.
x 3.00 3.50 3.90 3.99 3.999 5.00 4.50 4.10 4.01 4.001

f(x) -1 -0.5 -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 1 0.5 0.1 0.01 0.001

 lim f ( x)  0
x 4

3.

x -3.00 -2.50 -2.10 -2.01 -2.001 -1.0 -1.5 -1.9 -1.99 -1.999

f(x) -10 -8.5 -7.3 -7.03 -7.003 -4 -5.5 -6.7 -6.97 -6.997

lim f ( x)  7
x 2

Self Test 2.3.A

1. -2 9. -8
3. -7 11. 0
5. -1 13. -5341
7. 49
Self Test 2.3.B

1
1. 0 9.
3
3. -2 11. 0
5. -2 13. -2
1
7. 15. 0
3
Exercise 2.3

2 2
1. 22 5.
2
2. 27

Self – Test 2.4

1. lim (3x  2)  1 , lim (3x  2)  1

x 1 x 1

 x 2  2 x  1  x 2  2 x  1
3. lim    0, lim  0
x  1
 x  1  x  1
 x  1 

5. lim ( x x  1)  6 , lim ( x x  1)  6
x 3 x 3

7. a. lim f (t )  8
t 4

b. lim f (t )  0
t 4 

c. lim f (t ) does not exist

t 4

9. a. lim f ( x)  0
x 5

b. lim f ( x)  0
x 5

c. lim f ( x)  0
x 5

11. a. 0 b. 3 c. 0 d. dne

e. 5 f. 5 g. 5 h. 2

i. 2 j. 2 k. 0
Exercise 2.4

1. a. lim f ( x)  1
x 1
b. lim f ( x)  1
x 1

c. lim f ( x)  1
x 1

3
3. a = , b=1
2

5.

Self – Test 2.5

1. f is continuous for all x (, ) 3. Discontinuous at x = 1, since

lim f ( x)  3 , lim f ( x)  1 and f(1)=2

x 1 x 1
Exercise 2.5

1. Discontinuous at x = -3, since 3. f is continuous for all x (, )

f(-3) is indeterminate and lim f ( x)  5

x 3

5. f is continuous on x  [0,9) U (9, ), since lim f ( x) does not exist and f(9) is
x 0

indeterminate.

7. m is continuous on (-c, c)

9.