Overview of C

Programming

Mirza Mohammad Lutfe Elahi

CSE 115 Programming Language I ECE@NSU
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Outline
• History of C

• C Language Elements

• Data Types and Variable Declarations

• Executable Statements

• Input and Output Functions

• General form of a C program

• Arithmetic Expressions

• Formatting Numbers in Program Output

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History of C
• C was developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at AT&T
Bell Laboratories.
• C was designed as a programming language to write
the Unix Operating System.
• C became the most commonly used language for
writing system software.
• C is machine independent: C programs can be
compiled to run on a wide variety of processors and
operating systems.

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 C Language Elements in 4

Miles-to-Kilometers Conversion Program

/*
* Converts distance in miles to kilometres.
*/ standard header file
preprocessor #include <stdio.h> /* printf, scanf definitions */
directives #define KMS_PER_MILE 1.609 /* conversion constant */
constant
int main(void) {
float miles, // input – distance in miles
reserved kms; // output – distance in kilometres
words
/* Get the distance in miles */
variables comments
printf("Enter distance in miles: ");
scanf("%f", &miles);
functions // Convert the distance to kilometres
kms = KMS_PER_MILE * miles;
special
// Display the distance in kilometres
symbols
printf("That equals %9.2f km.\n", kms);

return 0;
} punctuations

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 Program in Memory: Before (a) and After 5

Execution of a Program (b)

What happens in the computer memory?

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Preprocessor Directives
• Preprocessor directives are commands that give
instructions to the C preprocessor.
• The preprocessor modifies a C program prior to its
compilation.
• Preprocessor directives begin with #
#include <stdio.h>
– Includes Standard I/O Library header file (.h file)
#include <math.h>
– Includes Standard Math Library header file (.h file)
#define PI 3.141593
– Defines the constant PI

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#include Directives
• #include directive is used to include other source
files into your source file.
• The #include directive gives a program access to a
standard library.
• Standard Libraries contains useful functions and
symbols that are predefined by the C language.
– You must include <stdio.h> if you want to use the
printf and scanf library functions.
– stdio.h is called a header file (.h file). It contains
information about standard input and output functions that
are inserted into your program before compilation.
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#define Directives
• The #define directive instructs the preprocessor to
replace each occurrence of a text by a particular
constant value before compilation.
• #define replaces all occurrences of the text you
specify with the constant value you specify
#define NAME value
#define KMS_PER_MILE 1.609
#define PI 3.141593

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The main Function

• int main(void) marks the beginning of the main
function where program execution begins.
• Every C program has a main function.
• Braces { and } mark the beginning and end of the body of
function main.
• A function body has two parts:
– Declarations - tell the compiler what memory cells are
needed in the function
– Executable statements - (derived from the algorithm) are
translated into machine language and later executed by the
computer

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Reserved Words
• A word that has special meaning to C and can not be
used for other purposes.

• These are words that C reserves for its own uses

• Built-in Types: int, float, double, char, etc.

• Control flow: if, else, for, while, return, etc.

• Always lower case

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Standard Identifiers
• Identifier - A name given to a variable or a function
• Standard Identifier - An identifier defined in a
standard C library and has special meaning in C.
– Examples: printf, scanf
– Standard identifiers are not reserved words
– You can redefine standard identifiers if you want to, but it is
not recommended.
– For example, if you define your own function printf,
then you cannot use the C library function printf.

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User Defined Identifiers

• We choose our own identifiers to
– Name memory cells that will hold data and program results
– Name functions that we define
• Rules for Naming Identifiers:
– An identifier consists only of letters, digits, and underscores
– An identifier cannot begin with a digit
– A C reserved word cannot be used as an identifier
– A standard C identifier should not be redefined
• Examples of Valid identifiers:
– letter1, inches, KMS_PER_MILE
• Examples of Invalid identifiers:
– 1letter, Happy$trout, return
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Guidelines for Naming Identifiers

• Uppercase and lowercase are different
– LETTER , Letter, letter are different identifiers
– Avoid names that only differ by case. They can lead to
problems of finding bugs (errors) in the program.
• Choose meaningful identifiers (easy to understand)
• Example: distance = rate * time
– Means a lot more than z = x * y
• Choose #define constants to be ALL UPPERCASE
– Example: KMS_PER_MILE is a defined constant
– As a variable, we can probably name it:
KmsPerMile or Kms_Per_Mile

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Data Types
• Data Types: a set of values and a set of operations
that can be performed on those values
– int: Stores signed integer values: whole numbers
• Examples: 65, -12345
– double: Stores real numbers that use a decimal point
• Examples: 3.14159 or 1.23e5 (which equals 123000.0)
– char: Stores character values
• Each char value is enclosed in single quotes: 'A', '*'
• Can be a letter, digit, or special character symbol
– Arithmetic operations (+, -, *, /) and compare can be
performed on int and double variables. Compare
operations can be performed on char variables.
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Integer and Floating-Point Data Types

• Integer Types in C
Type Size in Memory Range
short 2 bytes = 16 bits -32768 to +32767
unsigned short 2 bytes = 16 bits 0 to 65535
int 4 bytes = 32 bits -2147483648 to +2147483647
unsigned int 4 bytes = 32 bits 0 to 4294967295
long 4 bytes = 32 bits Same as int
long long 8 bytes = 64 bits -9×1018 to +9×1018

• Floating-Point Types in C
Type Size in Memory Approximate Range Significant Digits
float 4 bytes = 32 bits 10-38 to 10+38 6
double 8 bytes = 64 bits 10-308 to 10+308 15

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Characters and ASCII Code

• Character Type in C
Type Size in Memory ASCII Codes
char 1 byte = 8 bits 0 to 255

• ASCII Codes and Special Characters

Character ASCII Code Special Characters Meaning
'0' 48 '' Space Character
'9' 57 '*' Star Character
'A' 65 '\n' Newline
'B' 66 '\t' Horizontal Tab
'Z' 90 '\'' Single Quote
'a' 97 '\"' Double Quote
'b' 98 '\\' Backslash
'z' 122 '\0' NULL Character
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Variable Declaration
• Variables: The memory cells used for storing a
program’s input data and its computational results
– The Value of a Variable can change at runtime

• Variable declarations: Statements that communicate

to the compiler the names of variables in the program
and the type of data they can store.
– Examples:
double miles, kms;
int count;
char answer;
– C requires that you declare every variable in the program.
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Executable Statements
• Executable Statements: C statements used to write or
code the algorithm. C compiler translates the
executable statements to machine code.
• Examples of executable Statements:
– Assignment Statements
– Function Calls, such as calling printf and scanf
– return statement
– if and switch statements (selection) - later
– for and while statements (iteration) - later

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Assignment Statements
• Stores a value or a computational result in a variable

variable = expression;

= is the Assignment Operator

• The assignment statement computes the expression

that appears after the assignment operator and stores
its value in the variable that appears to the left.

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kms = KMS_PER_MILE * miles

The value assigned to kms is the result of multiplying

the constant KMS_PER_MILE by the variable miles.

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sum = sum + item

Read = as "becomes"
The assignment operator does NOT mean equality

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Input/Output Operations and Functions

• Input operation: data transfer from the outside world
into computer memory
• Output operation: program results can be displayed
to the program user
• Input/Output functions: special program units that
do all input/output operations
– printf : output function
– scanf : input function
• Function call: used to call or activate a function
– Asking another piece of code to do some work for you
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The printf function

function function arguments

name
printf("That equals %f kilometers.\n", kms);

format place holder print

string list

That equals 16.0900000 kilometers.

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Placeholders
• Placeholders always begin with the symbol %
– % marks the place in a format string where a value will be
printed out or will be read
• Format strings can have multiple placeholders, if you
are printing multiple values

Placeholder Variable Type Function Use

%c char printf / scanf
%d int printf / scanf
%f double printf
%lf double scanf

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Displaying Prompts
• When input data is needed in an interactive program,
you should use the printf function to display a
prompting message, or prompt, that tells the user
what data to enter.

printf("Enter the distance in miles> ");

printf("Enter the object mass in grams> ");

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The scanf Function

function Number
name function arguments Entered 30.5
miles
scanf("%lf", &miles);
30.5
place holders input variables

• The & is the address operator. It tells scanf the

address of variable miles in memory.
• When user inputs a value, it is stored in miles.
• The placeholder %lf tells scanf the type of data to
store into variable miles.
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Reading Three Letters

char letter1, letter2, letter3;

scanf("%c%c%c",
Letters
&letter1, C a r
Entered
&letter2, letter1
C
&letter3);
letter2
a
letter3

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Return Statement
• Syntax: return expression ;
• Example: return (0);
• Returning from the main function terminates the
program and transfers control back to the operating
system. Value returned is 0.
• The return statement transfers control from a
function back to the caller.
• Once you start writing your own functions, you will
use the return statement to return the result of a
function back to the caller.

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General Form of a C program

• Preprocessor directives modify

the text of a C program before
compilation.
• Every variable has to be
declared before using it.

• Executable statements are translated into machine

language and eventually executed.
• Executable statements perform computations on the
declared variables or input/output operations.
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Comments
• Comments making it easier for us to understand the program,
but are ignored by the C compiler.
• Two forms of comments:
– /* C comment */ anything between /* and */ is
considered a comment, even if it spans on multiple lines.
– // C++ comment anything after // is considered a
comment until the end of the line.
• Comments are used to create Program Documentation
– Help others read and understand the program.
• The start of the program should consist of a comment that
includes programmer’s name, date, current version, and a brief
description of what the program does.
• Always Comment your Code!
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Programming Style
• Why we need to follow conventions?
– A program that looks good is easier to read and understand
than one that is sloppy.
– 80% of the cost of software goes to maintenance.
– Hardly any software is maintained for its whole lifetime by
the original author.
– Programs that follow the typical conventions are more
readable and allow engineers to understand the code more
quickly and thoroughly.
• Check your text book and expert programmers on how
to improve your programming style.
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White Space
• The compiler ignores extra blanks between words and
symbols, but you may insert space to improve the
readability and style of a program.

• You should always leave a blank space after a comma

and before and after operators such as: + − * /
and =

• You should indent the lines of code in the body of a

function.

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White Space
Bad: Good:

int main(void) int main(void)

{ int foo,blah; {
scanf("%d",&foo); int foo, blah;
blah=foo+1; scanf("%d", &foo);
printf("%d", blah); blah = foo + 1;
return 0;} printf("%d", blah);
return 0;
}

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Bad Programming Practice

• Missing statement of purpose
• Inadequate commenting
• Variables names are not meaningful
• Use of unnamed constant
• Indentation does not represent program structure
• Algorithm is inefficient or difficult to follow
• Program does not compile
• Program produces incorrect results
• Insufficient testing (test case results are different than expected,
program is not fully tested for all cases)

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Arithmetic Expressions
• To solve most programming problems, you need to
write arithmetic expressions that compute data of type
int and double (and sometimes char)
• Arithmetic expressions contain variables, constants,
function calls, arithmetic operators, as well as sub-
expressions written within parentheses.
• Examples:
– sum + 1
– (a + b) * (c – d)
– (-b + sqrt(delta))/(2.0 * a)

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Arithmetic Operators
Operator Meaning Examples
5 + 2 is 7
+ addition 5.0 + 2.0 is 7.0
'B' + 1 is 'C'
5 – 2 is 3
– subtraction 5.0 – 2.0 is 3.0
'B' – 1 is 'A'
5 * 2 is 10
* multiplication
5.0 * 2.0 is 10.0
5 / 2 is 2
/ division
5.0 / 2.0 is 2.5
% remainder 5 % 2 is 1
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Operators / And %
Example Result Explanation
8/5 1 Integer operands  integer result
8.0/5.0 1.6 floating-point operands and result
8 /-5 -1 One operand is negative  negative result
-8 /-5 1 Both operands are negative  positive result
8%5 3 Integer remainder of dividing 8 by 5
8 %-5 3 Positive dividend  positive remainder
-8 % 5 -3 Negative dividend  Negative remainder

• (m/n)*n + (m%n) is always equal to m

• / and % are undefined when the divisor is 0.
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Data Type of an Expressions

• What is the type of expression x+y when x and y are
both of type int? (answer: type of x+y is int)
• The data type of an expression depends on the type(s)
of its operands
– If both are of type int, then the expression is of type int.
– If either one or both operands are of type double, then the
expression is of type double.

• An expression that has mixed operands of type int

and double is a mixed-type expression.

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Multi-Type Assignment Statement

• The expression being evaluated and the variable to
which it is assigned have different data types
• The expression is first evaluated; then the result is
assigned to the variable to the left side of = operator
– Example: what is the value of y = 5/2 when y is of type
double? (answer: 5/2 is 2; y = 2.0)
• Warning: assignment of a type double expression
to a type int variable causes the fractional part of the
expression to be lost.
– Example: what is the type of the assignment y = 5.0 / 2.0
when y is of type int? (answer: 5.0/2.0 is 2.5; y = 2)
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Type Conversion Through Casts

• C allows the programmer to convert the type of an
expression by placing the desired type in parentheses
before the expression.
• This operation is called a type cast.
– (double)5 / (double)2 is the double value 2.5
– (int)(9 * 0.5) is the int value 4

• When casting from double to int, the decimal

fraction is truncated (NOT rounded).

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Example of the Use of Type Cast

/* Computes a test average */
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
int total; /* total score */
int students; /* number of students */
double average; /* average score */

printf("Enter total students score> ");

scanf("%d", &total);
printf("Enter number of students> ");
scanf("%d", &students);
average = (double) total / (double) students;
printf("Average score is %.2f\n", average);
return 0;
}

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Expression with Multiple Operators

• Operators are of two types: unary and binary
• Unary operators take only one operand
– Unary minus (-) and Unary plus (+) operators

• Binary operators take two operands

– Examples: addition (+), subtraction (–), multiplication
(*), division (/) and integer remainder (%) operators

• A single expression could have multiple operators

– Example: -a + b*c – d/2

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Step-by-Step Expressions Evaluation

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Evaluate: z - (a + b/2) + w*-y

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Formatting Integers in Program Output

• You can specify how printf will display integers
• For integers, use %nd
– % start of placeholder
– n is the optional field width = number of columns to display
– If n is less than integer size, it will be ignored
– If n is greater than integer size, spaces are added to the left
Value Format Output Value Format Output
234 %4d 234 -234 %4d -234
234 %5d 234 -234 %5d -234
234 %6d 234 -234 %6d -234
234 %1d 234 -234 %2d -234
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Formatting Type Double Values

• Use %n.mf for double values
– n is the optional field width = number of digits in the whole
number, the unary minus, decimal point, and fraction digits
– If n is less than what the number needs it will be ignored
– .m is the number of decimal places (optional)
Value Format Output Value Format Output
3.14159 %5.2f 3.14 3.14159 %4.2f 3.14
3.14159 %3.2f 3.14 3.14159 %5.1f 3.1
3.14159 %5.3f 3.142 3.14159 %8.5f 3.14159
0.1234 %4.2f 0.12 -0.006 %4.2f -0.01
-0.006 %8.3f -0.006 -0.006 %8.5f -0.00600
-0.006 %.3f -0.006 -3.14159 %.4f -3.1416
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Expression with Multiple Operators

• Syntax Errors (Detected by the Compiler)
– Violating one or more grammar rules
– Missing semicolon (end of variable declaration or statement)
– Undeclared variable (using a variable without declaration)
– Comment not closed (missing */ at end of comment)
• Run-Time Errors (NOT detected by compiler)
– Detected by the computer when running the program
– Illegal operation, such as dividing a number by zero
– Program cannot run to completion
• Undetected and Logic Errors
– Program runs to completion but computes wrong results
– Input was not read properly
– Wrong algorithm and computation
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