PHYSICO - MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COW HAIR FILLED UNSATURATED

POLYESTER COMPOSITES

A RESEARCH PROJECT

BY

MURTADA MUJAHID GARKO

(U14TX1037)

SUPERVISED BY:

MALAM MUKTAR SULEIMAN

SUBMITTED TO:

DEPARTMENT OF POLYMER AND TEXTILE ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN TEXTILE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
 NOVEMBER, 2019

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this project titled – “Physico Mechanical Properties of cow hair filled

unsaturated Polyester Composite” is the result of mine initiative and product of my research

findings and has been carried out in the Department of Polymer and Textile Engineering under

the supervision of MalamMuktar Suleiman. It is to the best of my knowledge and as the

submission for a Bachelor degree.

All data used and works consulted have been duly acknowledge in the reference as the case may

be.

MURTADA MUJAHID Date

(U14TX1037)

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This project titled “Physical and Mechanical Properties of cow hair filled Unsaturated Polyester

Composite” has been certified to meet the guideline and stipulations of the partial fulfilment

required for the award of Bachelor of Science in Department Polymer and Textile Engineering in

Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria and approved for its contribution to knowledge and literary

presentation.

Mai matsala ashiQ DA sihiri da mai rashin aure idan ana zargi aljanine da mai korar saurrayi da

mafarki da wanda ciki yake zubewa za suyi wannan hadi inshaallah ayi anjaraba andace

BATA SIHIRI

Sai ahada kirfa da yasun-da zitir da kaman da shanmmmar sai a rika tafasa cokali daya a nasha

da zuma yana magance sihiri kowanne irine inshaallah.

KARYA SIHIRI DA SAMMU

Sai a hada garin habba da garin magarya da garin kustul-hind ahada zuma ana sha yana bata

sihiri inshaallah

iii
MAGANIN BASIR MAI TSIRO

Asami danya da zait lauz-a kwaba shi da danyan kwal egg a dinga turawa a cikin dubura yana

kashe basir mai tsiro kuma yana kona basir

KARA NI'IMA NA MATA

Sai a rinka hada man tafarnuwa da zuma da madara ansha za'ayi mamaki- safe da yamma.

ASMA

Sai arinka hada garin tafarnuwa da zuma da kuma filjil karamin sai arika shan cokali bibiyu

arana sau 3

HAIHUWA

Zaa hada garin tafarnuwa cokali 5 garin hulba cokali 5 da garin albabunaj cokali 3 da fijil 2 da

zuma kwalba 3 sai a hadasu adora awuta marar karfi yadda zai hade sai a dinga shan cokali

bibiyu sau 3 arana inshaallah za'a dace.

MAGANIN GUDAWA

iv
Sai a jika garin tafarnuwa bayan yajika sai azuba zuma cokali 3 asha idan baitasaya ba sai a sake.

CIWON IDANU

Asami man tafarnuwa idan za'a kwanta sai a diga a idanu zaa dace ko asami ismudi arika

shafawa idan yayi tsanani akwaba kwalin da ruwan zamzam sai arika digawa zaa dace

ULSER

Za'a hada man tafarnuwa cokali 10 man zaitun cokali 3 da zuma kwalba 1 sai ahada su arika shan

cokali bibiyu sau 3 arana zaa dace inshaallahu.

CIWON KUTRTA

Zaa hada garin tafarnuwa cokali 15 kanimfari cokali 5 da shammar cokali 5 da hidal cokali 5 da

zuma kwalba daya sai ahadasu waje daya arinka shan cokali bibiyu sau 3 a rana.

Idan tana ruwa sai arinka wanka da maul-kal sai kuma ahada man habbatusauda da man

tafarnuwa dagarin halitit arinka shafawa kuma anashan ruwan-zaa dace.

CIWON SUGAR

v
Asami garin tafarnuwa cokali 15 da garin hulba cokali 5 mur dan kadan-tsada rabin kwano

madaici gwangwani 1 tazagade gwangwani 2, za'a hada waje daya sai arika zuba cokali daya

cikin madara asha da safe kafin akarya inshaallahu za'a dace.

CIWON SUGAR

Asami garin habbatisauda 100g garin luba azkar 100g da shair 100g da alkama 100g ahadasu da

ruwa lita 3 atafasa sossai bayan ansauke sai a adaina arika shan babban kofi kafin akarya har

tsawon kwana 11 rana na 12 asha wani abu da sugar inshaallah zaa dace.

HAWON JINI

Asami garin tafarnuwa cokali 20- garin habba cokali 10 da zuma lita 100 sai ahada waje daya

arinka shan cokali 3 sau 3 arana

CIWON ZUCIYA

Ahada garin tafarnuwa da zuma da man zaitun arinka sha-za'a dace.

MAGANIN RASHIN BACCI

Asami garin tafarnuwa da zuma cokali 2 da madara sai a rinka sha za'a dace.

vi
KAIKAI FARJI

Asami tafarnuwa da garin hulba da man shanu sai ta tafasa ta dinga zama a cikin ruwa sau 3 a

rana zata warke inshaallah.

KARA QIBA MACE

Asami lemon zaki 1 lemon tsami 1 da koye 1 na kwai da zuma babban cokali 3 sai kisha amma

da safe zaki sha kafin a karya

KARIN TSAWO DA KAURIN ZAKARI

Asami Albasa a markadata da zuma sannan da dafu kadan sai a sauke sai a zuba garin habba da

garin fijil agaurayasu arinka sha cokali 1 kullum kafin karyawa

MAGANIN ALJANU

Asami maul-wardi, Maul-kal, hiltit da zuma ahadasu waje daya adinga zubawa aruwa ansha

kullum sau daya idan Aljanu saka reqe ma mutum baki baya magana zai yi magana de cikin da

mara da kirji.

ALJANNU

vii
Asami jan kajiji da bakin kajiji, habbatusauda da habbatus rashad, fararwuta da tafarnuwa a

hadasu a daka sai araba biyu rabi a kwaba shi da man kadanya a dinga shafawa a jiki.

Rabi a dinga hayaqi dashi-

Yana maganin ciwon daji da kansar nono da farar aljanu su ka bata yana hana aljani shiga jikin

mutum. Yana korar su daga gida.

KUMA

Turaren ambar- Turaren za'afaran Jan-miski-bakin miski da man juda

Ahadasu wajen daya a dinga shefe jiki kullum idan za'a kwanta barci da dadafe yana maganin

namiji dare da mugwanyen mafarki da firgita da rashin barci wanda aljanu suka haifar

KO KUMA

Man juda-habba-sau-man zaitun-man gelo da zuma da man tafarnuwa ahadasu waje daya adinga

shan cokali daya kullum yana saurin kashe aljani har lahira-yana maganin cututtaka da aljanu

suka saka a jikin mutum

KO KUMA

Kanwa da gishiri da albasa a hadasu waje daya a jika a cikin kwarya a dinga sha- yana maganin

cutar aljani tareda karya sihiri cikin sauki.

viii
MAGANIN PROSTATE CANCER-CANCER MAFITSARA

Asami yayan kabewa cokali 7 yayan kankana cokali 7 anika kowanne daban-daban.

Sai asami tafasashen ruwa azuba garin kabewan aciki cokali 1 abarshi ya huce kadan sai a sa

zuma a ciki asha da safe kafin a karya da minti 15 dayamma ayima na kankana haka zaa dace har

tsawan sati 1.

KO KUMA

Asamo katuwar albasa a yanyankashi 4 sa a anna kadafashi da ruwa kofi 1 idan yadafu sai ka

tace ruwan idan ya huce sai ka zuba zuma kasha zaa dace.

HAIHUWA

Asami man albabunaj arinka jansa acikin sirinji a allura sai a matsawa a cikin farji kullum saanan

ki kwanta tsawon minti 15 har ya ratsa jikinki.

KO KUMA ASAMI

Asami saiwar shajaratu maryan- a na jikashi a cikin ruwa a sha ko yaushe yana bude maaifa.

Kuma a samun haihuwa inshaallah.

MATSALA MANIYI

ix
Anemi farar albasa a yanyankata a sa acikin zumaaci su cokali 2 yan 1 na albasa da safe kafin

karyawa.

KO KUMA ANEMI

Garin habba-saud-a gauraya da ruwan kankana da na karas sai a zuba zuma kadan a rinka sha.

KANUMFARI

Asami man kanumfari dana kwakwa ahada su cikin ruwan zafi a wanke fuska da shi yana sata

haske taushi da kyau sumul.

KANUMFARI

Asami man kanumfari asa ruwa kadan a goga a dasashin yaro yana rage ma yaro laulayin hakori

KARA KUZARI DA SHA'AWAH

Anemi man kanumfari a zuba acikin ruwan zafi-cokali 1 asha yana kara kuzari da hana saurin

inzali.

MAGANIN CIWO KUNNE

x
Ahada man kanumfari da man ridi waje daya arinqa digawa a kunne mai ciwo.

MAGANIN SAURIN INZALI

Animi man kanumfari da man sim-sim da na girfa a dinga shafawa a gaba lokaci da za'a saduwa

za'a dace.

MAN DARBEJIYA

Asami ganyen darbejiya sai a tsinke ganyen a sa a turmi sai a daka shi sai a sashi a cikin man

kwakwa sai a sa a cikin ruwan zafi a dora a kan wuta ana juyawa sai a tace.

MAGANIN CIWON GABOBI

Asami garin citta a hada da zuma a rinka shafawa gabobi-ana kiran hadin (paste).

MAGANIN ALJANNU

Adafa albabunaj tareda zuma a sha aljani zai bar jiki nan take inshaallah. Musamman masu zama

acikin kai da bargo da jijiya-amma ason sha ruwa idan asha wannan magani.

MAGANIN FARFADIYA

xi
Za'a hada akiru-karha da safe kafin yaci abinci da yamma haka tsawon wata daya bayan sati 1

abashi filisko zai warke inshaallah.

AMFANIN KASHU (YAZAWA)

Ana sha sa domin magance cutar da aljani ko sammo ko maita sukasa acikin hanta ko zuciya da

yawon wasawasi da kasala da tari da asma. Amma kada a yawaita cinsa.

AMFANIN ZA'AFARAN

Yana halaka bakin aljani tareda halaka mai aljani taurin kai sannan kuma ya bude idon wanda

aljanu suka rufewa ido-ana hada shi da hubu bul miski da maul-wardi an amfani da shi kowanne

lokaci.

MISKI

Idan aka hada man zaitun da miski da habb-saud-akayi addu'a aciki ana shafawa yana karya

lagon duk wani mugu har mahasadi da maye da boka duka-inshaallah.

YANSUN

Ana dafashi da zuma da akiru-karha asha don kona bakin aljani mai taurin kai ko fitar dashi daga

jiki sannan yana warkar da sammo da maita da farfadaya da yardan Allah.

xii
KUSTUL HINDI- 2 BAKIDA FARI

Za'a yi aiki dashi wajan warkarda kumbari mahaifa-cizon maciji da kunama da duk wata cuta da

aljanu ke sakawa dan adam ko sammu ko maita ana shansa da zuma ko ahada da man zaitun.

Sannan za'a iya dakashi sai a dinga shaq garin tahanci.

MAGANIN FARFADIYA

Asami garin dattora kamar-cokali 3 ahada da garin hiltit shima cokali 3 sai a rinka turarawa an

yin hayaki dashi inshaallah za'a dace.

KO KUMA

Asami garin fijili cokali 3 garin habba-sauda shima cokali 3 a gauraya su tareda garin kustul-

hindi da kuma dattora cokali 2 ajuyesu acikin zuma a rinka bama marar lafiya cokali biyu da safe

kafin karya sannan da yamma inzai kwanta inshaallah zaiyi maganin gudawa da farfadiya

MAGANIN TSAGIYA

Asami albasa babba a yanyan kashi sai a kirbe a matse ruwan sai a zuba zuma cokali 5 ko 3 sai a

juya a shanye inshaallah yana maganin matsalar tsagaya da makelewar fitsari da sanyi mara da

daskarewar maniyi ko mutuwar ya'yan maniyi kuma zai magance basur.

xiii
KO KUMA

Ganyen naa'naa a hada shi da ganyen jirjir da si'itir ana dafawa ana shan ruwan tare da zuma.

MAGANIN CIWON IDANU

Asami man tafarnuwa mai kyau idan za'a kwanta a diga a cikin idanu inshaallah za'a dace

KUMA IDAN YAYE TSANANI

Asami ismudi a kwabashi da ruwan zam zam sai arinka digawa a ido inshaallah za'a dace.

MAGANIN SUMA

Wanda ya samu a samu albasa a sami shi a qofa hancin sa inshaallah zai tashi.

MAGANIN MAKERO

Sai a wanke gurin a kankare da maul-kal za'a wanke gurin sai a rinka shafa man tafarnuwa za'a

dace.

CIWON GABOBI

Asami garin habba-saud-da zuma adinga sha sannan azuba garin habba saud. A cikin man zaitun

a dinga shafawa a gabobi inshaallah za'a dace.

xiv
FAMA DA DOGUWAN JINYA

To arinka shan ruman.

CIWON GABOBI DA JIKI

Ya rinka shan shayin ruwan ruman amma za'a tafasa sai a sha rabin kopi da safe a karya sai a

rinka motsa jiki.

GYARA MANIYI

Arinka shan shayin ruman safe bayan ankarya da yamma a sha.

FITARDA ALJANI

Asamu maul-wardi da maul-kal da alcohol to ahadasu sai a fesha alokacin rukiya aljani zaiyi ihu.

GYARA MAKOGWARA

Asha maul-wardi yana gyara murya da gyara makogwara

MAGANIN JINNU

xv
Duk wanda aljani ya hanashi magana to ahada maul-wardi da maul-kal da zuma da hiltit sai a

karatun ruqiya abashi yasha baki zai bude inshaallah

CIWON RASHIN BACCI

Asami yonsun a rinka dafashi a na shayi anasha da safe kafin aci abinci da yamma inza'a kwanta

haka yana maganin matsalar rashin bacci da ciwon gabobi da kasalar jiki kasha kaga ikon Allah.

AMFANIN ZUMADA TAFARNUWA

Idan akasamu zuma cikin bbabban cokali daya tareda sala uku na tafarnuwa ayanyanka ko kuma

adaka sai a hadasu da zuma cokali daya asha da safe kafin akarya har tsawan sati daya zai

magance.

1. Hawan jini

2. Zai rage yawan kitse ajiki

3. Ciwon gabobi

4. Typhiod

5. Matsalolin zuciya, saurin gajiya da yawan nishi

6. Asma nymonia da sauran cuttukanda sanyi yake kawowa

7. Ciwon wuya da dashewar murya

xvi
8.cutar sugar

9. Yana kashe dukan cuta da ta danganci jini

ASAMI GARIN BAWAN RUMAN

Yana maganin kamar haka

1. Olsa idan akadashi da zuma ana sha

2. Ciwon wuya

3. Zazzabi

4. Warin baki

5. Basir

6. Tsutan ciki

7. Kurajan jiki

8. Makero- Kora- Kezbi

MATSALAR BACCI

Asami kaltufa a hadashi da zuma asha idan zai kwanta bacci hakama idan antashi kafin akarya.

xvii
MATSALAR MAFITSARA

Asami kaltufa anasha da zuma yana magance matsalar rashi yin fitsari ko yawan yin shi

musamman ga masu bladder-infection.

AMFANI QARO

Asami qaro a dakashi ya zama garin a rinka ba marar lafiya amma ajika shi acikin ruwa shi garin

qari cikin babban cokali ruwa cikin karamin kopi sai abarshi tsawon minti talatin za'a ga

mamaki.

KUSTUL HINDI

Asami garin farin kustul hindi ahada sha da man zaitun karamin cokali na kustul hindi, Ko kuma

ruwan zafi da zuma ko da zuma zalla tareda man zaitun da kaltufa sai a adina ida ba zai lalace ba

amma idan da man zaitun ne aka hada ta saia'dinga tacewa.

Sai a dinga sha safe da yamma cokali biyu biyu inshaallah za'a sami dacewa haihuwa.

MAGANIN SAURIN KAWOWAR

Asami garin habba saud cokali 1 sai a sami kwai 3 a soya su amma kar su soyu sausai

MAGANIN SALUMCE JIKI

xviii
Asamu man zaitun da man kwakwa da garin kurkur ahadasa sai a sami auduga arinka dangalawa

a durin sai a barshi tsawon minti 30 sai asami kyelle da ruwan zafi ana goge ahankali tsawon

wata 1.

MAGANIN CIWON GABOBI

Za'a sami maul-kal cokali 1 da man habba saud 1/2 cokali da zuma cokali 1 sai a hadasu gudaya

arinka sha cokali 1 da safe kafin a karya da dare idan za'a kwanta asha cokali 1, Zuwa sati 2 ga

wanda yajima da ciwon wanda yake sabone sai yayi zuwa sati 1 inshaallah za'a dace.

MAGANIN SHAFIN ALJAN

Asamu ma'ul-wardi da tsakin ganyen kuka da ma'ul-kal da ruwan zam zam. Kadan da ruwa emti-

ganyen kuka cokali 2 sai a hadasu sai idan za'a kwanta arinka shafe jiki da su ruwan inshaallah

aljani bazai zauna a wannan jiki ba.

MAGANIN SANYI MAI KUMBURE-JIKI

Asamu ganyen naa'naa kadafa tareda citta saannan ka zuba man tafarnuwa cokali 1 sai a sa zuma

a ciki sai asha safe da yamma har tsawan sati 2 ko kwana 10 saannan kana shafa man tafarnuwa

inshaallah za'a warke.

xix
MAGANIN CUTUTTUKA

Asamu garin hulba da habba-sauda da zuma. suna maganin kowane ciwon inshaallah.

MAGANIN INFECTION MAI FESOWA JIKI

Asamu ganyen darbejiyya a barshi ya bushe a inuwa sai a dakeshi ya zamo gari sai a sami lemon

tsami guda 2 da man citta sai a debi garin darbejiya cokali 1 sai a juya su sai asami wani abu ana

dangwalawa ana gogawa inda keda wannan matsalar ayi haka sau 2 a rana idan a shafa shi da

safe sai a wanke zuwa 12 rana- sai a sake safawa har zuwa karfe 5 na yamma inshaallah za'a

dace.

MAGANIN ZAZAFI

Wanda yake fama da zazafi ko mura ko ciwon makogaro ya sami zuma rabin kopi ya yanka

katuwar albasa yasa a ciki sai ya cinye tareda zuma inshaallahu zai samu lafiya.

Hakama mai fama da ulser ko jin zafi a lokacin fitsari.

MAGANIN HABO

Asamu albasa a kirba ana shaqa a hanci habo zai tsaya inshaallah

xx
MAGANIN KUNA WUTA

Asamu albasa a kirbata sai a dora akan wurin da aka kone zai tsaya amma akwai zafi kuma zata

bushe gurin.

MAGANIN CIWON CIKIN YARA

Asamu albasa a yanyankata a tafasa idan ruwan ya huce a dinga ba yaro duk bayan hour 1.

MAGANIN ZUBAR GASHIN KAI

Asamu albasa a kirbata aqara ruwa kadan adinga wanke kai sau daya a sati za'a dace.

MAGANIN CIWON SIKILER

Asamu albasa ayakata a hadata tareda ganyen zogale anaci inshaallah za'a warke.

MAI SHAN WAHALA FITSARI KO BAHAYA

Asamu man albasa ahada da zuma da lemon tsami a rinka sha sae da yamma kuma a rinka shafa

man albasa ajikin mara inshaallah za'a warke a cikin lokaci kankani.

CIWON SUGAR

xxi
Asamu albasa arinka ci kullum yana daidaita sugar.

CIWON BASIR

Ayanyanka albasa a dafata a hadata da kuli-kuli arinka ci kullum inshaallah za'ayi mamaki.

CIWON SANYIN QASHI

Adafa albasa man zaitun arinka dumama gurin alokaci bacci yana shafe wajan ciwon da safe

kuma arinka shan ruwan har tsawon sati 1.

MARURU KO QURAJE

Asamu dakakiyar aalbasa ahadata da man zaitun a dafa ana wanke gurin maruru ko quraje bayan

an gama wankewa sai a shafa man zaitun.

YADDA AKE HADA MAN LEMON TSAMI

Asami bawon lemon tsami ahada da man kwakwa sai a dora a wuta kar wuta yayi yawa arinka

juyawa tsawon minti 5 sai a sauke- shikenan ya zama man lemon tsami kokuma

Asami bawon lemon tsami yadan bushe kadan sai a hada da man kwakwa a ajiye tsawon sati 2

ida ba rana amma kullum a juya shi.

xxii
JINNI

Asami ma'ul wardi da ma'ul kal da alcohol a hada su da ruwa kadan a dinga shafe jiki da shi ya

toshe hanyoyin aljanu.

KO KUMA

Asamu turaren ambar turaren za'afaran da jan miski da baki miski da man juda ahadasu a dinga

shafawa kullum idan za'a kwanta yana hana namiji dare da mafarki mai muni.

KO KUMA

Asami man juda, man habba saud, man zaitun, man gelo da zuma da man tafarnuwa ahada su

waje daya adinga shan cokali daya kullum yana saurin kashe aljani.

MAGANIN BASIR

Asami garin ganyen sabara aringa sawa a kunu ko a fura asha kwana 3 kwana ta hudu sai ashafa

man dama a dunura zuwa sati 2.

MAGANIN FARFADIYA

xxiii
Asami garin dattora da garin hiltit arinka dafawa ana siraci dashi kuma arinka turara jiki dashi

za'a dace daga cinwon farfadiya inshaallah.

KO

Ko arinka karanta ayatul qursiyu a cikin ruwan zam-zam anasha shima wannan ana dacewa.

KO KUMA

Asamu lubban zakar cokali 1 da garin habba sauda cokali 2 tafarnuwa guda 2/3 a dafa sai a tace

a zuba zuma arinka sha safe kafin a karya da yamma idan za'a kwanta har tsawon wata daya.

Inshaallah za'a warke daga farfadiya.

KO KUMA

Asami garin fijil cokali 3 garin habba saud shima cokali 3 ahada su tareda garin kustul-hindi da

garin dattora cokali 2 a juyasu a cikin zuma arinka sha da safe kafin a karya da yamma za'a dace

inshaallah.

MAGANIN SHAQUWA

xxiv
Asami tafasashen ruwa a zuba garin zaitun sai a barshi ya huce tsawon minti 15 sai a tace asa

ma'ul kal cokali 3 zuma cokali 3 sai a rinka sha rabin kopi da safe kafin a karya da yamma idan

za'a kwanta tsawon sati 1 inshaallah za'a dace.

MAGANIN KYASFI DA MAKERO DA KURAJAN ASKI

Asami man kadansa + man habb sauda + man kwakwa duk inda kyasfi yake sai a shafa. In

makero ne asami man kadanga + man zaitun a hadasu gudaya arinka shafawa inda duk makero

yake.

In kurajan askine a sami man kadanya + man ikililjabal da man kwakwa sai ashafa akai

inshaallah za'a dace.

MAGANIN INFECTION

Asami man habba sauda da man tafarnuwa da man albabunaj kahada su duda daya sai ka dafa

danyan citta da ruwan kopi daya danyan citta da ruwa kopi daya idan ya dafu sai ka sanya

wancan man cokali daya a ciki sai kasa zuma sai ka sha inshaallah zaka warke.

MAGANIN ULSER

Asamu man tafarnuwa da man kabeji da man habba saud ahadasu arinka shan cokali da safe

kafin akarya cokali 2 indan za'a kwanta wannan za'a warke.

xxv
MAGANIN KUMBURIN MARINO

Asamu hulba da sha'ir a jika su a rinka sha sau 3 a rana tsawon sati daya.

KUMBURIN MAHAIFA

Asami hulba atafasa sai a zauna a cikin har tsawon sati daya.

MAGANIN RAUNIN MAZAKUTA

Asami garin hulba da zuma a hada su arinka sha cokali 2 da yamma ma haka.

MAGANIN SANYIN KASHI

Asami yayan zogale a soyasu sai a dakasu a hadasu da manja a dinga shafawa a jiki sa'anan

arinka sha ruwan zam zam kofi daya karamin safe da yamma.

MAGANIN DAFIN KUNAMA DA MACIJI

Asami garin kustul-hindi ajikashi a ruwan zafi a bama mutum yasha zai sami sauki kai tsaye

inshaallah-yadda za'ayi shine asami garin kustul-hindi cokali 2 a zuba a cikin ruwan zafi kofi

daya sai abashi za'a iya sake hada mishi wani.

xxvi
MAGANIN SHAWARA

Asami habbatusaudah cokali 1 a dafa shi atace sai a zuba zuma babba yasha kopi daya sau biyu a

rana zuwa kwana 5 yaro robin zuwa kwana 4.

DOMIN KORAR-ALJANA-MACIJI-KUNAMA-SAURO-KUDIN CIZO-KYANKYASO-

KUDA A SAURAN-SU

Asami garin habbatusauda ahada da zuma a turara a cikin daki kuma za'a turara ma mai matsala

aljanu ko sihiri.

MAGANIN CIWON CIKI

Asami habbatus sauda da rabin cokali a jikata a cika ruwan zafi kofi daya sai a zuba zuma sai

yasha kofi 1 sau 3 a rana yaro rabin zuwa kwana 3.

MAGANIN CIWON JIKI

A dafa habbatus sauda arinka wanka da ruwa bayan angama wanka sai ahada garin habbatus

saud cokali 2 a cikin zuma cokali 7 babba yasha cokali 3 sau 2 a rana zuwa kwana 5 yaro cokali

daya sau biyu zuwa kwana 4.

xxvii
MAGANIN MALERIYA

A dafa yanyan hulba cokali 1 babba a cikin ruwa kopi 2 babba a cikin ruwa kopi 2 inya tafasa sai

a sauke atace sai a matsa limon tsami 1 babba a zuba zuma cokali 4 babba.

Asha kofi daya safe da yamma zuwa kwana 15

Amma mai ulsa karyasa lemon.

MAGANIN CIWON SANYIN KASHI

Asami man habba sauda a soya shi tare albasa a rinka shafawa jiki.

MAGANIN CIWON BAYA DA KUGU

Asami arrarabi a dinga jika shi ana sha sauran a shafa

MAGANIN HAJIJIYA

Asami gidan zanzanro da sassaken kuka adakasu arinka sha za'a warke inshaallah.

MAGANIN KAIKAYIN GABAN MACE

Anemi garin hulba cokali 2 da garin magarya cokali 3 da garin lalle cokali 2 ahada su guda daya

a garwayata arinka tafasawa tana zama a ciki ruwan zafi zata warke inshaallah.

xxviii
MAGANIN KARFIN MAZA

Asami man jirjir arinka zuba cokali 1 a cikin lipton ana sha bayan isha'i kullum asha za'aga abin

mamaki amma ahada da motsa da jiki da cin abinci a yawa.

MAGANIN CIWON GABOBI

Asami bawan lemon tsami asaka a cikin man zaitun a rufe zuwa sati 2 sai a cire bawan a

dawrashi a gaba ko gurinda yake ciwo za'a warke harabada inshaallah.

MAGANIN CIWON KAI

Ahada garin habbatusauda da ma'ul kal a rinkasha kuma ana digawa a hanci yana maganin ciwon

kai ma tsanani.

HULBA

Atafasa hulba arinka shan ruwan ya magance kumburin jiki da ciki ko matsalar hanji.

MAGANIN KUMBURIN MARINA

Ahada hulba da sha'ir a jika arinka sha sau 3 a rana har zuwa sati daya.

xxix
ZAZABI MAI ZAFI

Ahada garin tafarnuwa dayansu da ziitir arinka tafasawa anasha da zuma za'a dace.

MAGANIN KUMBURIN MAHAIFA

Atafasa hulba da ruwan indan suka tafasa sai a tace idan an tace sai mace ta zauna a cikin ruwan

tsawon minti 15 har zuwa sati 2 ko 3 inshaallah za'a dace.

MAGANIN KUMBURIN SAIFA

Ahada garin hulba da kahl-T-da habba sauda arinka sha da safe kafin akarya har tsawon sati 2

za'a samu lifiya inshaallah.

KUMBURIN CIKI

Atafasa garin hulba inda ya tafasa sai a tace a zuba a kofi sai a tace a zuba a kofi sai asaka sugar

rabin cokali a shanye ayi haka sau 2 a rana safe da yamma zuwa sati 1 za'a dace inshaallah.

RAUNIN MAZAKUTA

xxx
Asami garin hulba cokali 21 azuba a cikin zuma kofi 1 kullum arinka shan cokali 1 awa daya

kafin a ci abinci ayi haka har tsawon sati 3 ko 4.

BASIR

Adafa hulba da zuma arinka sha kullum awa daya kafin ayi bacci

RASHIN RUWAN NONO

Adafa hulba da man ridi arika ciki har tsawon kwana 3 kuma arinka shafa man hulba a nono za'a

samu nono inshaallah.

RASHIN CIN ABINCI

Ahada man hulba da zuma arinka shan cokali 2 sau 3 arana tsawon sati 2 ko 3.

MAGANIN CIWON IDANU

Adafa hulba da yasun arika wanke idanu asa ma'ul wardi za'a dace.

KARIN NI'IMA MATA

xxxi
Adafa yayan hulba da kanumfari da habba sauda da zuma anasha za'a ga abin mamaki inshaallah.

MAGANIN BUSHEWAR FATA

A kwaba garin hulba da ruwan yayi kauri sai a shafa abarshi tsawon minti 30 sai a wanke.

MAGANIN KAIKAYIN JIKI

Atafasa garin hulba ayi wanka dashi kuma adinga shafa man kanumfari kafin ayi wanka kuma

atafasa lemon-tsami da ganyen mangwaro ayi wanka da ruwan.

MAGANIN KAIKAYIN GABA

Anemi man zaitun dana habba sauda ana shafawa a gaban za'a dace inshaallah.

MAGANIN SHAWARA

Asami jan barkono ajika shi asha.

MAGANIN CIWON MARA NA MANTA

Asami yayan gwanda mace ta rinka taunasu tana ci kamar guda 10 tayi sau biyu arana za'a dace

inshaallah harda mai matsalar haihuwa.

xxxii
MAGANIN ULSER

Asami ganyen tafasa garin ahada da zuma asha

BASIR

Asami ganyen tafasa asa gishiri a ruwa a rinka tsuguno a ciki na mintuna 10 ko fiye da haka.

MAGANIN BARCI

Za'a hada garin tafarnuwa da zuma cokali 2 da madara sai a rinka sha za'a dace inshaallah.

MAGANIN RAUNIN MAZAKUTA

Asami garin tafarnuwa da na habba sauda da citta da shanmmar zuwa kofi 1 sai a hada garin

tafarnuwa cokali 5 habba sauda 3 citta cokali 1 shanmmar 2 ahadasu da zuma arinka sha cokali 3

arana sau 2 za'ayi mamaki inshaallah.

RASHI FITAN FITSARI KO WAHALA YINSA

Ahada tafarnuwa da hulba da jauzi dayyib arinka tafasawa da zuma ana sha

KO KUMA

xxxiii
Atafasa garin habba sauda da hulba da kustul hind anasha da zuma.

KO KUMA SAMUN SAUKI DA GAUGAWA

Arinka hada ma'ul kal da zuma da man zaitun anasha inshaallah za'a samu sauki da sauri

inshaallah.

ASMA

Ahada garin tafarnuwa da zuma da fijil karamin cokali arinka shan cokali bi buyu sau 3 arana.

KO AHADA

Irkusus huran al babbunaj, garin habba sauda, garin yansun sai ahada su arika tafasa cokali daya

daya sau 2 arana har zuwa sati 2 za'a dace inshaallah.

RASHIN HAIHUWA

Ahada garin tafarnuwa cokali 5, hulba cokali 5, Albabunaj 3, fijil 2 da zuma kwalba 3 sai a dora

a wuta marar karfi yadda zai hade sai a dinga shan cokali bibiyu-bibiyu sau 3 arana inshaallah

za'a dace.

ASMA

Ahada man albasa da zuma asha kullum kofi da har zuwa wata daya.

xxxiv
CIWON CIKI MAI KARA

Asami garin tafarnuwa cokali 5, bakdunus 3, lemon tsami 3, zuma cokali 20 sai a hadasu arinka

shan cokali 2 sau 3 arana.

CIWON ULSER

Ahada man tafarnuwa cokali 10, man zaitun cokali 3, zuma kwalba daya sai ahada su arinka sha

cokali 2 sau 3 arana.

CIWON ZUCIYA

Ahada man kanumfari da zuwa da man zaitun arinka sha.

CIWON KIRJI

Za'a hada tafarnuwa cokali 1, ziitir cokali 1, sai arika tafasawa safe da yamma anasha kofi dai dai

sai kuma arika shafa man tafarnuwan akirji.

MAKERO

xxxv
Za'a kankare wajan sannan kuma a wanke wajan daruwan ma'ul kal sai kuma arinka shafa man

tafarnuwa awajan za'a dace inshaallah.

MAGANIN CIWON KAI

Asami man na'a na'a a hadashi da habba saud arinka shafawa a goshi kuma ana shan cokali 2 sau

3 arana

KO KUMA

Asami man habba sauda da ma'ul kal anasha ana digiwa a hanci sau biyu safe da yamma.

MADACI

Sassaken madaci yana maganin shawara, cizon kunama, tsutsar ciki.

KIRYA

Kirya tana maganin ciwon kai, ciwon haure, ciwon amosanin kashi ciwon fata, masassara.

TARI DA ASMA

Asami man habba sauda ko kuma habba rob, ashafa a kirji da dare kafin a kwanta bacci.

xxxvi
TSUTSAR CIKI

Asha habba sauda tareda ruwan kal dai dai gwargwodo tana kashe tsutsar ciki sossai

WANDA JINI YIKI DAUKEWA

Asami man tafarnuwa rabin karamin cokali tarinka sha sau 4 arana

MAGANIN CIWON MARA KO CIWON CIKI ALOKACIN AL-ADA KO JINNI YARI KAYI

MATA WASA

Asami zuma cokali 5, man tafarnuwa cokali 2, in anhadsu sai a rinka sha cokali 2 da safe daya da

yamma.

CIWON GABOBI

Asami man sim sim ahada da man hulba a dinga shafe kafafuwa da safe da yamma inshaallah

za'a warke. Amma idan an tsufa to akwai bukatar anisanci cin naman shanu shima yana kara

masa nauyin gabobi.

SHANYEWAR JIKI

xxxvii
Asamu ganyen zogale cokali 7 da kabeji cokali 7 a wankesu a zuba a blender tareda ruwan zobo

kofi 2 a markadasu a tace a zuba zuma arinka sha za'a warke daga shanyewar jiki da hawan jini

da ulser da tari da asma sa sauran.

KO

Asami man zaitun a karanta fatiha 7, ayatul kursiyyi 7, qulhuwallah da falaqi da nasi sau 7,

ayatush shifa'i ma haka to wannan man zaitun a rinqa shafawa ko yaushe kuma bayan an shafa

sai a fito cikin hantsi a zauna kamar minti 10-15 kuma a rinka sa shi a abinci anaci za'a samu

lafiya.

KO KUMA

Adafa tafarnuwa anasha da zuma kuma abashi man tafarnuwa wanda aka hada da bargon saniya.

MAGANIN SHAQUWA

A tauna kwaya habba sauda da rabin cokali da man habb sauda tareda man shanu.

MAGANIN HAIHUWA

xxxviii
Asami man zaitun + man habba + man albabunaj. Ahadasu gu daya dai dai sannan a karanta

ayatul-kursiyyu da suratul Aal-imran da suratul anbiya'i arinqa shafawa ajiki kuma a shan cokali

1 da safe da yamma har tsawon sati 6 ko 8.

MAGANIN HAIHUWA

Garin Fijil- cokali 5

Habba sauda-5

Hulba-5

A garwaya su attadasu da zuma copi 1 arinka sha cokali 1 da safe da yamma sannan asha madara

bayan ansha su yana maganin haihuwa.

MAGANIN DAN KANOMA

Asami garin sabara cokali daya karami a sha tareda nono.

MAGANIN AMOSANI KAI DA KUMA

Iskanda keyawo a cikin jiki

Asami garin ganyen sabara ajika shi ayi wanka da shi kuma akada da nono anasha.

xxxix
MAGANIN KAIKAIYI JIKI, KUMBURI

Asami garin ganyen sabara a shashi a cikin ruwan zafi idan ya jiku sai ayi wanka da shi kuma

asha shi a kunu sau 2 arana

MAGANIN CIWON ZUCIYA

Asami garin zaitun da zuma da ruwa a tafasasu a rinki sha sau 3 arana

Mal MuktariSuleman Date

(Project Supervisor)

Prof.A.Giwa Date
(Head of Department)

xl
External Examiner Date

DEDICATION

This research project is dedicated to my parents, siblings and to the entire class of 2019 polymer

and textile engineering department.

xli
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank Allah (SWA) for His guidance, protection, mercies, love and the gift of life. I extend my

sincere gratitude to my supervisor Mal MuktariSulemanWhose help, stimulating suggestions,

encouragement, time and support helped me to have a good work done. My sincere and utmost

appreciation and love goes my lovely parents AlhajiMurtada Suleiman Garko and Hajiya Amina

Muhammad for their patience, love, moral and financial support, encouragement, care and

prayers. I would also like to express my gratitude to my beloved sister ZainabMurtadaGarko for

her love, support, kindness and prayers. My appreciation goes to all the technical staff of

polymer lab, Mal. Musa,Mal. Nuhu and Mal. Idris for their efforts and supports during my

practical‘s. My indebted appreciation goes the Head of the department in the person of Professor

A Giwa and to all the lecturers in the Department of Polymer and Textile Engineering Ahmadu

Bello University Zaria. With deep sense of gratitude, I would like to appreciate my mentors and

motivators AliyuBabayaro, Khalid bebeji and Abdulkadir G leemanand to my friends, Abdul

Ganiyu Mustapha, AnasLadanBala, Abdul AzeezIdrisDauda, AbubakarYahaya Bello, Saifullahi

Adam, Abdul Fatah Adamu, Abdul karimdanlami, NuraaliyuLawalMus’ab, JibrilIsah,

Aliyuadam, Rajab kabiruogiri, Umar abbas, Abdul rauf Z yau, Faisal Zango,

Ukashausman,Ukashamalamgarba, Nurausman, Abdul qadirsalih, Abdul shakurAlhasan,

Muhammad hussaini, Abdul karimdanlami, Shuaibulawal, Hungry lion, Mubarak abdullahi,

xlii
illyasharuna, Abu turuma, Ibrahim adam, Aminuadamuidrsi, Yunushamidu, Hussaina and

HasasnaAdamu, Momoduketimu, Madinahsafiyanu, Nafisa baba, Mariyaadamu, Fatimah

ismaildatti, Aisha aminu, Amina sa’eed, Idrishabibasabriyya, Solihatoyiza, Hauwausman, Shehu

Fatima yusuf, Bilkisu Mustapha ndagi, Sarah Emmanuel, Hauwa Muhammad, Abimbola

Mahmud taibat, Hussaini Mercy O and the entire undisputed family.

My appreciation also goes to my project colleagues (Aminu, Rajab and Hadiza) and

entireU14TX familyand those who have directly or indirectly assisted me in the cause of my

studies.

MAGANIN JINNI KO SIHIRI

Asami man habbatus sauda auda (125m)

Man zaitun (250m)

Man tafarnuwa 2

Man naa' naa 2

Zaafaran 1- Almiski 1

Kusdul hind 2 ko man garin amma amfison man-halti-da man gelo. Sai ahada waje daya arika shafawa
sau uku arana-sai a zuba karamin cokali cilkin madara anasha inshaallah za'a sami waraka ga shafar al-
janu ko tabuwar hankali-

IDAN KUMA ALJANI NE WANDA GA ADABI MACE KUMA ANA ZARGIN YAHAIFAR MATA DA MATSALA
ACIKI KO A MARA SHIKUMA ASAMI

Asami man habba 725m-man zaitun 250m mantafarnuwa 2 da man naa'naa 2 da zafaran 1 da miski 1 da
man gelo ko a sanya wardi-sai ahadasu a rika sanya wardi sai ahadasu a rika sanya karamin cokali acikin
madara anasha sau 3 a rana kuma ana shafawa yana magance matsalar aljanu inshaallah

xliii
 ABSTRACT

The biodegradable fibres derived from natural fibre are abundantly available and are currently

considered as a waste. The use of natural fibres and Unsaturated polyester resin material is

highly beneficial because the strength and toughness of the resulting composite is greater than

those of unreinforced composite. The cow hair fibres were thoroughly washed, dried and

random dispersion in an Unsaturated polyester resin matrix. Before use, some of the fibres were

treated with 0.2M H2O2 for fibre surface modifications while some were left as untreated.

Composites were fabricated using predetermined proportions of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25%

filler loading by hand lay-up techniques and allowed to cure at ambient temperature. Physio-

Mechanical properties of the cow hair filled unsaturated polyester resin composites were

evaluated from which it was discovered that the treated fibre reinforced composites possess

better enhancement of mechanical properties compared to the untreated fibre reinforced

composites and the unreinforced unsaturated material. The maximum tensile strength of the

treated cow hair fibre and untreated cow hair fibre composite was found to be 48.32MPa at

25% treated cow hair fibre(TCHF) and 46.04MPa at 20% untreated cow hair fibre (UCHF).

The highest tensile modulus was found to be 269.2MPa at 25% treated cow hair fibre and

261.28MPa at 25% untreated cow hair fibre. The maximum flexural strength was 41.37MPa at

25% treated cow hair fibre and 41.20MPa untreated cow hair fibre. Maximum flexural modulus

was found to be 255.12MPa at 25% TCHF and 221.41MPa at 20% UTCHF. The maximum

elongation at break was 5% and 10% for TCHF and 30%, 5%, 10%, 15%UTCHF, and the

highest impact strength was 95.33J at 20% for TCHF and 94.3J for the UCHF.

xliv
 TABLES OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE....................................................................................................................................i

DECLARATION.............................................................................................................................ii

CERTIFICATION..........................................................................................................................iii

DEDICATION................................................................................................................................iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...............................................................................................................v

ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................vii

TABLES OF CONTENTS...........................................................................................................viii

LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................................ix

LIST OF TABLES...........................................................................................................................x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................1

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM........................................................3

1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH.......................................................................4

1.3 SCOPE............................................................................................................................4

1.4 AIMS...............................................................................................................................4

1.5 OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................................5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................6

xlv
2.1 FIBRE..............................................................................................................................6

2.2 NATURAL FIBRES.......................................................................................................6

2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL FIBRES................................................................7

2.4 HAIR FIBRES...............................................................................................................11

2.4.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Hair Fibers......................................................12

2.4.2 Structure and composition of animal fibers..................................................................12

2.5 COW HAIR...................................................................................................................13

2.5.1 Structure and composition of cow hair.........................................................................14

2.6 THE VARIOUS BREEDS OF CATTLE IN NIGERIA...............................................15

2.7 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NATURAL FIBRES...........................................21

2.8 APPLICATION OF NATURAL FIBRE COMPOSITES............................................21

2.8 UNSATURATED POLYESTER RESIN.....................................................................21

2.9 COMPOSITE MATERIALS........................................................................................27

2.10 DEFINITION OF COMPOSITES................................................................................28

2.11 TYPES OF COMPOSITES...........................................................................................29

2.11.1 Metal Matrix Composite...............................................................................................29

2.11.2 Ceramic Matrix Composites..........................................................................................32

2.11.3 Polymer Matrix Composites..........................................................................................33

2.12 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES...........................................................................33

2.13 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES......................................................................34

xlvi
2.13.1 Classification of composites I (based on matrix material)............................................35

2.13.2 Classification of composite materials II(based on reinforcing material structure).......35

2.14 CONSTITUENTS OF COMPOSITES.........................................................................36

2.14.1 Matrices.........................................................................................................................36

2.14.2 Reinforcing fibres..........................................................................................................37

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS..............................................................................................40

3.1 Equipment.....................................................................................................................40

3.2 METHODS....................................................................................................................40

3.2.1 Chemical Treatment of Cow Hair.................................................................................40

3.2.1 PRODUCTION OF COMPOSITE SHEET..................................................................41

3.3 TESTING OF COMPOSITES......................................................................................42

3.4 MECHANICAL TESTS...............................................................................................42

3.4.1 Tensile Test:..................................................................................................................42

3.4.2 Impact Test....................................................................................................................43

3.4.3 Hardness test.................................................................................................................43

3.4.5 Flexural Test..................................................................................................................44

3.5 PHYSICAL TESTS......................................................................................................44

3.5.1 Density..........................................................................................................................44

3.5.2 Water Absorption Test..................................................................................................45

3.5.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).........................................................................45

xlvii
CHAPTER FOUR: : RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..................................................................46

4.1 TENSILE STRENGTH.................................................................................................46

4.1.1 Elongation at Break.......................................................................................................48

4.1.2 Tensile Modulus............................................................................................................49

4.2 FLEXURAL STRENGHT TEST.................................................................................50

4.2.1 FLEXURAL MODULUS.............................................................................................51

4.3 IMPACT TEST.............................................................................................................52

4.4 HARDNESS TEST.......................................................................................................53

4.5 PHYSICAL TEST.........................................................................................................54

4.5.1 DENSITY......................................................................................................................54

4.5: WATER ABSORPTION TEST....................................................................................55

4.6 FTIR (INFRARED SPECTRAL RESULT).................................................................57

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS..........................................59

5.1 CONCLUSIONS...........................................................................................................59

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS..............................................................................................60

REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................61

APPENDIX....................................................................................................................................64

xlviii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 classifications of natural fibres. (www.google.com/classificationofnaturalfibres

April 2017)..........................................................................................................11
Figure 2.2: Shows the three distinct morphological units.....................................................15
Figure 2.3: Shows some monomers of unsaturated polyester (David and Gurit, 2015).......24
Figure 2.4: Chemical Synthesis of unsaturated Polyester resin.(David and Gurit.2015)......24
Figure 2.5: Schematic representation of unsaturated polyester resin (cured) (David and
Gurit 2015)..........................................................................................................26
Figure 2.6 constituent of composite material. (www.researchgate.net/figure April 2017)..29
Figure 4.1 Tensile Strength versus Filler loading for treated and untreated cow hair fibre/
UPR Composites.................................................................................................46
Figure 4.2: Elongation at break Versus Filler loading for treated and untreated cow
hair/UPR Composites.........................................................................................48
Figure 4.3: Tensile modulus Versus Filler loading for treated and untreated cow hair/UPR
Composites.........................................................................................................49
Figure 4.4: Flexural Strength versus Filler loading of Treated and untreated cow hair/UPR
composite............................................................................................................50
Figure 4.5: Flexural modulus versus Filler loading of Treated and untreated cow hair/UPR
composite............................................................................................................51
Figure 4.6: impact strength versus filler loading of treated and untreated cow hair/UPR
composite............................................................................................................52
Figure: 4.7: hardness versus Filler loading of Treated and untreated cow hair/UPR
composite............................................................................................................53
Figure 4.8 Density versus filler loading of treated and untreated cow hair/UPR composite
............................................................................................................................54
Figure 4.9: showing the percentage water uptake of treated cow hair/Unsaturated Polyester
composites at different fibre loading for 1 to 30 days........................................55

xlix
Figure 4.10: showing the percentage water uptake untreated cow hair/Unsaturated Polyester
composites at different fibre loading for 1 to 30 days........................................56
Figure 4.10: FTIR result for treated cow hair.........................................................................57
Figure 4.10: FTIR result for untreated cow hair.....................................................................58

l
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: weight of the matrix (unsaturated polyester)......................................................42

Table 4.1: Parameters for tensile strength test of treated and untreated cow hair fibre
composite............................................................................................................64
Table 4.2: Parameters for elongation at break of treated and untreated cow hair fibre
composite............................................................................................................64
Table 4.3: Parameters for tensile modulus of treated and untreated cow hair fibre
composite............................................................................................................65
Table 4.4: Parameters for flexural test of treated and untreated cow hair fibre composite. 65
Table 4.5: Parameters for flexural modulus of treated and untreated cow hair fibre
composite............................................................................................................66
Table 4.6: Parameters of impact test for treated and untreated cow hair fibre composite...66
Table 4.7: Parameters for hardness test for treated and untreated cow hair fibre composite
............................................................................................................................67
Table 4.8: Parameters for hardness test for treated and untreated cow hair fibre composite
............................................................................................................................67
Table 4.9: Percentage (%) water absorption test results for treated cow hair......................68
Table 4.10: Percentage (%) water absorption test results for untreated cow hair..................68

li
lii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The ever-increasing environmental concern and awareness of industrial pollution have forced

various engineering industries to develop innovative, reliable and sustainable materials which

can replace conventional materials (e.g. synthetic fibres and steel rebar) as reinforcement of

structural materials (Wei and Meyer, 2015; Saba et al., 2015). The developments in composite

material after meeting the challenges of aerospace sector have cascaded down for catering to

domestic and industrial applications. Composites, the wonder material with light-weight; high

strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness properties have come a long way in replacing the

conventional materials like metals, wood etc.

Nature has provided an immense source of fibres to the human kind, and among them are the

animal and plant based fibres which are of great importance because these animal and plant

natural fibres are available in abundance which are able to replace the synthetic fibres in the

present composite field due to their low density, non-abrasive, good-insulation properties,

recyclability, biodegradability, and other mechanical properties. (Jacob and Thomas, 2008:

motianty et al 2001, 2005).

Also the increasing concern about global warming and depleting petroleum reserves have made

scientists to focus more on the use of these natural fibres such as animal and plant fibres. Many

research articles have been published to justify the utility and to establish advantageous features

of such natural fibres.This has resulted in creation of more awareness about the use of natural

fibres based materials mainly composites(Madhusudhanaet al.,2014). In past decades there have

1
been many efforts to develop composites to replace the petroleum and other non-decaying

materials based products. The abundant availability of natural fibres gives attention on the

development of natural fibre composites primarily to explore value-added application avenues.

Reinforcement with natural fibre in composites has recently gained attention due to low cost,

easy availability, low density, acceptable specific properties, ease of preparation, enhanced

energy recovery, biodegradability and recyclable in nature (Vermalet al.,2013).

The present research work is more interested in preparing a composites made fromnatural

fibresas they are abundantly available and cheaper compared to synthetic fibres which need to be

processed and made-up of chemicals to gain the required property of composites. These natural

fibres yield better mechanical strength when added to thermosets or thermoplastics. The

mechanical properties of natural fibrefilled polymer composites depend strongly on the fibre

size, particle-matrix interface adhesion and fibre loading (Ishiakuet al.,2007). Most of the

composites available in the market today are produced with a high durability to ensure product

longetivity. Unfortunately, in order to make these products, companies have traditionally used

non-biodegradablefibres, made from non-degradable resources. The most important disadvantage

of such composite materials is the problem of disposal after end use. This draw the attention of

researchersto the use of natural,sustainable andbiodegradable resources. In modern production

environment, there is a great demand for every material to be degradable. Natural

fibrescomposites are composite materials formed by a matrix (resin) and a reinforcement (fibre),

in which the fibres are natural, mainly formed by animal or plant fibres. Some of these fibres can

be cow hair, fowl feather, human hair, hemp, Jute, flax, sisal, etc. Natural fibre

compositesmarkets are significantly on the rise, mainly because of the environmental

necessitiesand degradability, unsaturated polyester is an outstanding commercially important

2
thermosetting material with wide range of applications in various fields because of its balanced

chemical and mechanical properties(Navdeepet al,2012) .In this study, cow hair/unsaturated

polyester composites were prepared with the cow hair (animal hair)as filler and Unsaturated

Polyester Resin(UPR) as the matrix.

This research was carried out to encourage the use of natural fibers from animal origins as a

substitute to synthetic fibers for the production of polyester composites because unlike vegetable

fibres, most animal fibres are biological wastes such as cow hair, fowl feathers and mammalian

hairs which are generated across the globe by agro industries in billions tons per year

(Radhakhrisnaet al,2012). Most of these animal fibres are keratinous materials; that is, they are

potential bio-resources for keratin extraction. The treatments of thesefibres can clean and

chemically modify the surface, stop the moisture absorption process and increase the surface

roughness (Oladeleet al.,2016). The use of these fibers as reinforcements in both thermoplastic

and thermoset polymers also gives the twin benefits of solving disposal problem and cost

effectiveness.

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

The cow hair is a by-product from cow skin. Cow hair is a waste of tannery industry and abattoir.

These hairs are considered as waste because their current uses are economically marginal and

their disposal is difficult. Disposal methods of cow hair are done either by burning or burying

occasionally. Hence they are environmentally unfriendly. The cow hair waste produced by

abattoir operation do not only pose a significant challenge to effective environmental

management but also are associated with decreased air quality of the environment, potential

transferable antimicrobial resistance patterns, and several infectious agents that can be

3
pathogenic to human. Also, tannery industry is one of the most polluting industries because of

generation of huge amount of liquid and solid wastes, also emits obnoxious smell because of

degradation of hair and generation of gases such NH 3, H2S and CO2. Burning cow hair causes air

pollution and a landfill cow hair decomposes very slowly and requires a lot of land for

decomposition. In order to convert the waste cow hair into a useful material, various percentage

volume of cow hair has been combined with unsaturated polyester resin to produce the

composites.

1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH

The significance of this research is to encourage the use of natural fibres from animal origins as a

substitute to synthetic fibres for the production of unsaturated polyester resin composites. Also,

the research has been carried out to add value to cow hair and promote its use for engineering

applications while attempting to reduce the environmental issues it poses. This research was

aimed at developing treated and untreated cow hair fibres filled unsaturated polyester composites

and analyzing its physical and mechanical properties

1.3 SCOPE

This research work is carried out using unsaturated polyester resin as the matrix, treatment of

cow hair with hydrogen peroxide and making composites with treated and untreated cow hair

fibres at 0.3wt%, 0.6wt%, 0.9 wt %, 1.2 wt %, and 1.5wt% filler loadings

1.4 AIMS

The aim of this project is to evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of cow hair filled

unsaturated polyester composites

4
1.5 OBJECTIVES

The objectives are to:

1. Fabricate composites using cow hair as filler and unsaturated polyester as matrix at

different filler content

2. Determine the physical such as density, water absorption and mechanical properties such

as tensile strength, flexural strength, impact strength and hardness

3. Study the morphology of the tensile fractured surface of the composites

5
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 FIBRE

Fibre is a unit of matter that is characterized by high ratio of length to thickness. Fibres can be

generally classified into natural, man-made and mineral fibres.

2.2 NATURAL FIBRES

Natural fibres include those produced by plants, animals and geological processes. They are

biodegradable over time. The use of natural fibre for the reinforcement of the composites has

received increasingattention both by the academic sector and the industry. Natural fibres have

significantadvantages over synthetic fibres. Many types of natural fibres have been

investigatedfor use in plastics including cow hair, fowl feathers, cow tail, human hair, flax,

hemp, jute straw, wood, millet husk, sisal, coir, pennywort, kapok e.t.c(Dhakalet al., 2007).

Thermoplastics reinforced with special wood fillers are enjoying rapid growth due to their many

advantages;lightweight reasonable strength and stiffness. Some plant proteins are interesting

renewable materials, because of their thermoplastic properties (Bledzkiet al.,2002). Wheat gluten

is unique among cereal and other plant proteins in its ability to form a cohesive blend with

viscoelastic properties once plasticized (Marion et al., 2003). For these reasons, wheat gluten has

been utilized to process edible or biodegradable films or packing materials. Composite based on

biologically degradable polyester amide and plant fibres with good mechanical properties, such

as sufficient water resistance and biodegradability, have also been investigated (Jiang and

6
Hinrichsen. 2005). It has been found to be an important source of fibre for composites and other

industrial applications. Hemp has been used to make ropes but these days it’sfibre is used to

make items such as clothing, toys and shoes. The fibre is fully biodegradable, non-toxic and may

be recycled.Flax fibres are potentially outstanding reinforcing fillers in thermoplasticbio

composites (Rowell et al, 2002). These bio composites could have a great potential in lowering

the usage of petroleum based plastics. Jute is also one of the most common Argo fibres used as a

reinforcing component for thermoplastics and thermosetting matrices. Bamboo is an abundant

natural source in Asia and South America and has been used to develop bamboo reinforced

thermosetting plastic (Rajuluel al., 2003).

Thweet al, (2003) have investigated the effect of environmental aging on the mechanical

properties of bamboo-glass fibre reinforced polymer matrix hybrid composite.

2.3CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL FIBRES

Natural fibres include those produced by animals, plants and geological processes. They are

biodegradable over time. They can be classified according to their origin.

a) Vegetable fibres

b) Animal fibres

c) Mineral fibres

a.) Vegetable fibres: Natural fibres, often referred to as vegetable fibres, are extracted from

plants and are classified into three categories, depending on the part of the plant they are

extracted from.

7
1. Fruit fibres

 Cotton: Cotton is world-wide one of the most important fibres used in the textile

industry. Picking is highly labour-intensive, and on large scale is often carried out by

machine. In many parts of the world, however, picking is carried out by hand. In

comparison with other natural fibres, Cotton is rather weak. It can absorb moisture up to

20% of its dry weight, without feeling wet and is also a good heat conductor. Cotton is

applied for the manufacturing of clothes, carpets, blankets, mobs and medical cotton

wool.

 Coir (Coconut fibre): Coconut fibre is obtained from the husk of the fruit of the coconut

palm. The fibres are strong, light and easily withstand heat and salt water. After nine

months of growth, the nuts are still green and contain white fibre, which can be used for

the production of yarn, rope and fishing nets. After twelve months of growth, the fibres

are brown and can be used for brushes and mattresses.

2. Stem fibres

 Jute: The fibres are extracted from the ribbon of the stem. When harvested, the plants

are cut near the ground with a sickle shaped knife. The small fibres, 5 mm, are obtained

by successively retting in water, beating, stripping the fibre from the core and drying.

Due to its short fibre length, jute is the weakest stem fibre, although it withstands

rotting very easily. It is used as packaging material (bags), carpet backing, ropes, yarns

and wall decoration.

8
  Flax: Flax is a strong fibre with an increase of strength of 20% in wet conditions (Van

Oss, 1973) and it can absorb 20% moist without feeling wet. The elastic fibre degrades

due to sunlight and burns when ignited. Flax has good heat conducting properties, is

hard wearing and durable. However, constant creasing in the same place in sharp folds

tends to break the fibres. Flax is used for the production of linen and canvas, ropes and

sacks.

 Ramie: The Ramie plant (2 m high) can easily grow in tropical regions. Ramie is

usually harvested by hand. Retting is a more complex process due to a gummy

substance surrounding the fibres, which has to be removed with chemicals. Ramie is an

expensive and durable fibre and can be dyed very easily, and is therefore more often

used in decorative fabrics than as construction material. Applications are curtains,

wallpaper, sewing thread and furniture covers.

 Hemp:The plant itself can be grown without artificial fertilizers and weeds don't stand

a chance because hemp covers the entire ground within 4 weeks. The production is very

labour intensive, especially the separation of the fibres from the bast. A Hemp yarn is

strong and has of all natural fibres the highest resistance against water, but it shouldn't

be creased excessively to avoid breakage. The fibre is used for the production of rope,

fishing nets, paper, sacks, fire hoses and textile (Kvavadzeet al., 2009).

3. Leaf fibres

 Sisal: The plants look like giant pineapples and during harvest the leaves are cut as

close to the ground as possible. Sisal produces sturdy and strong fibres that are very

9
 well resistant against moist and heat. It is mainly used for ropes, mats, carpets and

cement reinforcement (Balter, 2009).

b) Mineral fibres: Mineral fibers are naturally occurring fiber or slightly modified fiber

procured from minerals. These can be categorized into the following categories:

i. Glass fibres made from specific glass, and optical fibres, made from purified natural quartz, are

also man-made fibres that come from natural raw materials.

ii. Metallic fibres can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver and extruded

or deposited from more brittle ones such as nickel, aluminum or iron(Danladi and Shuaib,2014).

b) Animal fibres: are natural fibers that consist largely of particular proteins. Instances

are silk, hair/fur (including wool) and feathers. The animal fibers used most commonly both in

the manufacturing world as well as by the hand spinners are wool from domestic sheep,

cow and silk. Also very popular are alpaca fiber and mohair from Angora goats. Unusual fibers

such as Angora wool from rabbits and Chiengora from dogs also exist, but are rarely used for

mass production.Not all animal fibers have the same properties, and even within a species the

fiber is not consistent. Merino is a very soft, fine wool, while Cotswold is coarser, and yet both

merino and Cotswold are types of sheep. This comparison can be continued on the microscopic

level, comparing the diameter and structure of the fiber. With animal fibers, and natural fibers in

general, the individual fibers look different, whereas all synthetic fibers look the same. This

provides an easy way to differentiate between natural and synthetic fibers under a microscope.

10
Figure 2.1 classifications of natural fibres. (www.google.com/classificationofnaturalfibres
April 2017)

2.4 HAIR FIBRES

Hair fiber is composed by three main structures: cuticle, cortex and medulla. The main factor to

be considered in the human hair is the high amount of the amino acid cystine, which may be

degraded and afterwards may be re-oxidated under a disulphidic bounding form. This is the basis

for the permanent curling process. Cystine is very stable; this is the reason why human hair may

be found relatively intact, even after several years after the death of an individual. 32Proteins

with α-helix structure wind each other by their left side, as if they were two stretched ropes

(winded to each other, curled). When the hair is stretched, this curl gives it a kind of elasticity.

Proteins which are winded in the hair have long filaments of unknown microfibers which link to

each other to form bigger structures, in order to produce cortex cells. This enchained structure

offers the capillary fiber more strength and elasticity (Wagner, Joekes, 2005).

11
2.4.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Hair Fibers

Physical proprieties of hair fibres: Physical proprieties of hair depend mostly on its geometry.

Caucasian hair is oval; Asian hair is circular; Afro hair is elliptic. Several mechanical proprieties

are directly related with fibers diameter (Dias et al., 2005).

Mechanical proprieties of hair fibres: Hair is surprisingly strong. Cortex keratin is responsible

for this propriety and its long chains are compressed to form a regular structure which, besides

being strong, is flexible (Dias,et al. 2004). The physical proprieties of hair involve: resistance to

stretching, elasticity and hydrophilic power.

2.4.2 Structure and composition of animal fibers

Animal fibers are the second most widely used natural fibers after vegetable or plant fibers. They

are generally comprised of proteins, and can be potential reinforcements in composites.

Examples of this fiber include wool fiber obtained from sheep, cow, goats, lamas, rabbits, musk

oxen, etc. Similarly, silk, feathers, and hair are obtained from various sources.

Unlike plant fibers, animal fibers are mainly composed of proteins. The protein fibers obtained

from broad natural sources, such as animals and insects, conduct an important role as

fundamental building blocks of life. They facilitate mobility, elasticity, scaffolding, stabilization,

and the protection of cells, tissue, and organisms. Overall properties of the fibers can be

determined by the sequence and the type of amino acids forming polypeptide chains. Major

classes of protein fibers are α-keratin and fibroin fibers. These are valued for their high

extensibility and use in textiles manufacturing. The α-keratin fibers are mainly wools and hairs

of various mammals, containing highly complex structure and different chemical compositions.

Keratins have typically durable, insoluble, and chemically unreactive properties. Most of

12
mammalian fibers comprise three main morphological components of wool: external cuticle,

cortex, and medulla. The overlapping cuticle cells form a protective sheath around cortex. The

cortex builds up of main bulk and determines mechanical properties of the fibers. Coarse fibers

have vacuolated medullary cells surrounded by cortical cells in the cortex. The cuticle consisting

of a scale structure over the surface can provide the basis of felting in wool and hydrophobic

property to repel liquid water. The cortex of wool forms approximately 90% of the fiber. Cortical

cells in the cortex are polyhedral, spindle-shaped, and around 100 µm long. In particular, a class

of biological intermediate filaments known as microfibrilsembedded in a matrix. This composite

structure of the microfibril–matrix in the cortex significantly contributes to mechanical

properties of wool. The cortical cells are adhered to each other by cell membrane complex,

which comprises a continuous phase of intercellular material. A small amount of this complex

can separate the cortical cells from the cuticle and provide penetration of water and chemical

agent into wool. The medulla is a minor component that is present in continuous, discontinuous,

or fragmented state along the axis of coarse α-keratin fibers.

2.5 COW HAIR

Cow hair belongs to the class of natural fibres, it’s an animal fibre which is proteinous in nature,

and cow hair is obtained from varieties of cattle ranging from the hairy breeds to non-hairy. In

most cases cow hair causes environmental pollution as its mostly burn off during, it can be

treated under appropriate condition with the appropriate chemicals to serve as a filler in

composite formation, thus aiding in improving production of eco-friendly composite from waste

natural fibres to useful composite materials.

13
Cow hair is commonly described as a waste from by-product and they are contributing to

environmental pollution due to disposal problem. They are two main cow hair disposal methods

that exist which are, burning and burying. Both of them have a negative impact on the

environment. Recent studied on animal hair shows that the waste can be a potential composite

reinforcement. The composite reinforcement application of cow hair offers much more effective

way to solve environmental concerns compared to the traditional disposal methods. Some of the

advantages of the cow hair are inexpensive, renewable, and abundantly available. The cow hair

as a composite reinforcement has certain desirable properties that includes: light weight, high

thermal insulation, excellent acoustic properties, non-abrasive behavior and excellent

hydrophobic properties.

2.5.1 Structure and composition of cow hair

Cow hair is composed of a protein and keratin. It is the same protein that makes horn,

fingernails, claws, skin epithelium, and dander. Cow hair consists of three distinct morphological

units, the cuticle, the cortex and the medulla. The distinctive pattern shown by these units varies

over the length of the hair in a way that can be very characteristic. The patterns exhibited by

these units in any given hair are often sufficient to identify the genus, the species, or even the

individual that the hair came from.

14
Figure 2.2: Shows the three distinct morphological units

2.6THE VARIOUS BREEDS OF CATTLE IN NIGERIA

Presently, cattle population in Nigeria has been estimated as 15.3 million (Umar, 2007; Umar et

al., 2008; Tibi&Aphunu, 2010). There are many breeds of cattle indigenous to Nigeria.

According to Babayemi, Abu, and Opakunbi (2014), the popular breeds of cattle in Nigeria

include White Fulani, Red Bororo, SokotoGudali, Adamawa Gudali, Wadara, Azawak, Muturu,

Keteku, Ndama and Kuri.

(i) White Fulani (Bunaji): White Fulani is the most numerous and widespread of all Nigerian

cattle breeds. The Nigerian National Livestock Research Survey (NNLRS); Alphonsus, Akpa,

Barje, Finangwai and Adamu (2012) estimated that, the white Fulani represents 37% of the

national herd. They are found fromLagos to Sokoto, Katsina and Kano States and spread across

the Nigerian Middle Belt. The only areas from which they are significantly absent are Borno,

where Rahaji and Wadara predominate, and in the south-east, where there are no resident Zebu.

The movement of cattle into the derived savannah and to the edge of the humid zone has largely

been of Bunaji and pastoralists generally agree that, they are superior to all other breeds of Zebu

in resisting diseases with the ability to thrive under a variety of conditions (Meghenet al., 2000).

15
The main limiting factors of this tropical breed of cattle include late sexual maturity, long

interval between calving and short lactation length. The White Fulani cattle are, however,

important for their genetic predisposition of hardiness, heat tolerance and adaptation to local

conditions (Alphonsuset al., 2012). It has white coat color and it is fairly large, height about 130

cm, bull weighs about 500 kg and cows 325 kg. The hump is large and well developed, navel

flab is small, horns are of medium length, up curving, and lyre shaped. The White Fulani is a

triple-purpose animal, with milk production of 2,300 kg per lactation. It may be fattened for beef,

kept for milk production, or used as draught animal, especially the bull. Crosses of White Fulani

and Holstein recorded increased milk production at NAPRI-Shika, Zaria (Alphonsuset al., 2012).

Age at first calving was 42 - 45 months but in Fulani herds it can be as high as 5 years. They

provide much of the beef consumed throughout Nigeria ( Alphonsuset al., 2012).

(ii) Red Bororo (Rahaji): The Red Bororo is the third most numerous breed of cattle in Nigeria,

representing 22% of the national herd. The Rahaji is adapted to arid and semi-arid regions and

are rarely found further south than Kaduna in the wet season, except for the isolated population

on the Mambila Plateau in the North-East (Meghenet al., 2000). The Rahaji is one of the largest

Zebu breeds and is distinguished by its deep burgundy-colored coat, pendulous ears and long,

thick horns. Fulani pastoralists consider the Rahaji an extremely prestigious breed and many

herds of ‘white’ cattle include a few Rahaji for cross-breeding. Nonetheless, it tolerates neither

humidity-related diseases nor poor nutrition. Strikingly, a Fulani clan, the Rahaji, named for the

breed they traditionally herded, has been obliged to exchange their stock for Bunaji as they have

moved south into the Middle Belt because of high mortality among the ‘red’ animals (Meghenet

al., 2000).

16
(iii) SokotoGudali: The Nigerian National Livestock Research Survey (NNLRS) estimated that,

Gudali represents 32% of the national herd. There are two quite distinct types of Gudali in

Nigeria: the SokotoGudali (Bokolooji) and the Adamawa Gudali. The SokotoGudali

stereotypically occurs mainly in the North-West of Nigeria, but in reality, it is now distributed

widely throughout the country. The SokotoGudali is a uniform cream, light grey or dun, the

dewlap and skin folds are highly developed and the horns almost absent. The hair is short and the

skin is thick and pigmented. The ears are pendulous and are useful milkers. Their milk yield at

the National Animal Production Research Institute (NAPRI), Shika was higher than that of

White Fulani (Payne & Wilson, 1999; Alphonsuset al., 2012). It has a calving interval of 360 -

450 days. The udders in the female are well developed with good teats; hence they are regarded

as indigenous dairy breed. At maturity, the female weighs an average of about 330 kg, while the

male weighs about 450 kg. The female produces an average of 1,500 kg of milk per lactation

(Payne & Wilson, 1999).

(iv) Adamawa Gudali: The Adamawa Gudali, as its name implies, is restricted to Adamawa

(Meghenet al., 2000). The NNLRS (1990) estimated that, Adamawa Gudali represents 2% of the

national herd. At least two local types were originally recognized in Nigeria: the Banyo, with

Rahaji blood and rather large horns, often with a white face and red eye patches, and the Yola,

which has an admixture of Muturu. The Muturu element has been progressively diluted since the

1950s and the Yola breed is no longer recognized as a distinct variety by local herders. The

Adamawa Gudali resembles the Bunaji in conformation. It is medium to large sized, with

medium-length horns and usually pied, or with a white, black, red or brown coat. It has thick,

crescent-shaped horns, a pendulous hump, and a short head and muzzle. however, the pendulous

hump is the feature that most reliably distinguishes it from the Bunaji. Both Kanuri and Fulani

17
pastoralists own Adamawa Gudali cattle. It is rare for them to have complete herds of Adamawa

Gudali, and often they are mixed with Wadara, Bunaji or Rahaji. Many farmers regard Adamawa

Gudali as the indigenous race of the region and they are common in villages, where they are

favored for ploughing, but when they become too large to pull a plough effectively, they are

further fattened in the compound and sent to market (Babayemiet al., 2014).

(v) Wadara: Wadara cattle, another Nigerian breed, are medium-sized, lightly built cattle, and

are usually dark-red, black, pied or brown. They are short horned and have a small erect hump,

representing some 6.6% of the national herd. Wadara cattle are the ‘indigenous’ cattle of Borno

and are referred to by the Koyam and related pastoralists as ‘our’ cattle. They are frequently

called ‘Shuwa’ in the literature, after the Shuwa Arabs who, also, herd them. A related breed

with a white coat, the Ambala, is often traded into Nigeria from Chad (Meghenet al., 2000).

(vi) Azawak: The Azawak is another breed found in Nigeria and is said to be native to the

Azawak valley North-East of Nigeria and is distributed along its North-Western border. It is

lightly built with medium-length horns. Although Azawak in Niger Republic is commonly

described as red, the Azawak that enter Nigeria are usually a light fawn color, though they can

also be white, brown, pied and black. The NNLRS (1990) estimated that, they represent just

0.7% of the national herd. A small population of Azawak cattle exists in Nigeria throughout the

year, but the majority is seasonally transhumant. Azawak are generally only found on the border

north and West of Sokoto but there are, also, some in the North-West of Borgu and dotted along

the frontier from Sokoto to Katsina (Meghenet al., 2000).

(vii) Kuri: The Kuri is a large-bodied humpless long-horn, whose exact historical origin is

unknown (Babayemiet al., 2014). The Kuri has distinctive, inflated, spongy horns unknown in

18
any other breed and with a mean height of 1.5 m, and weight up to 550 kg. It is one of the largest

breeds of African cattle. Kuri are noted for their extremely variable colors and their ability to

thrive in semi aquatic conditions. The nucleus of the Kuri cattle population is within the region

of the former Lake Chad, and along its eastern shores. In Nigeria, Kuri are found not only on the

Lake but on its shores and along the Yobe valley, as far west as Gashagar. There is, also, a

restricted export of the Kuri as traction animals to the region North-East of Kano. The breeds

along the KomaduguYobe are crossed with the Zebu and are generally referred to as Jetkoram in

the literature (Meghenet al., 2000).

(viii) N’dama: N’dama cattle are native to Senegambia and adjacent parts in the West of West

Africa (Babayemiet al., 2014). They were first brought into Nigeria from Guinea in 1939 on an

experimental basis, because they were trypano-tolerant and yet were larger than Muturu. The

N’dama has a medium-sized compact body with lyre-shaped black-tipped horns and no hump.

There is a small dewlap in the male, but a fairly large head. Although those imported into

Nigeria are generally light brown, there are black and pied animals in Guinea. N’dama cattle

have been sold to farmers and pastoralists with a view to improving the resistance of local herds

to trypanosomiasis. In most cases, herders cross them with Zebu and there are now few pure

N’dama outside institutions, although some were recorded in Northern Yoruba land (Meghenet

al., 2000).

(ix) Muturu: The West African dwarf short-horn or Muturu is small bodied, and blocky in

conformation with short, fine-boned limbs. It has a compact body, no hump, a straight back, and

a broad head. The face is slightly dished, and the horns are very short. In South-Central Nigeria,

the Muturu is generally black, or black and white. The Muturu on the Jos Plateau itself are

usually black and white but are distinctly larger than the low-land animals. There are more

19
variations in the Northern populations; where brown, red or tawny animals are recorded. Within

Nigeria, Muturu cattle have a very disjointed distribution, suggesting, a gradual retreat of a once

more widespread population) have reviewed the history, distribution, management and

productivity of the Muturu. Inadequate maps of their distribution have seriously marred

numerical estimates of the numbers of Muturu. Muturu are widely dispersed and often stall-fed,

and so are less visible than Zebu. As a result, published population figures are little more than

informed guesses. Moreover, since Northern Muturu are barely known and their trypano-

tolerance is unmeasured, they have usually been excluded from estimates of ‘trypano-tolerant’

cattle. ILCA’s (1979) estimate of 120,000 Muturu should be contrasted with that of Ngere ,who

gave a figure of 60,000 or 0.7% of the national herd. Akinwumi and Ikpi, surveying five states in

the south, reported 85,000. The NNLRS (1990), the first survey to consider all the population

islands, gave an estimate of some 115,000 for 1990 (RIM, 1992). There are isolated populations

of Muturu along the Republic of Cameroon frontier up as far as South-Eastern Borno, adjoining

the Michika-Mubi area of Adamawa. Small clusters exist in the Atlantika mountains, South-East

of Yola and near Cham, east of Bauchi. Muturu are still relatively common in South-East of the

Jos Plateau in the dry savannah (Meghenet al., 2000). There is another nucleus of Muturu north

of Tegina in the North-West, with diverse coat-colors suggesting a link with the North-Eastern

populations. Muturu were probably once kept throughout the whole of Southern Nigeria and

their disappearance from many areas is relatively recent. West of the River Niger, Muturu were

once widespread but are now uncommon. Both Keteku and Zebu have replaced them, or

communities have ceased keeping them. At present, the major concentrations of Muturu are in

the South-East, in the Cross River area and among the Tiv people in and around Makurdi.

Muturu are kept throughout the Igbo areas but in very low densities ( Meghenet al., 2000)

20
2.7 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NATURAL FIBRES

The mechanical properties and physical properties of natural fibres vary considerably depending

on the chemical and structural composition, fibre type and growth condition. Mechanical

properties of plant fibres are much lower when compared to those of the most widely used

competing reinforcing glass fibres(Amar et al., 2005). However, because of their low density, the

specific properties (property-to-density ratio), strength, and stiffness of plant fibres are

comparable to the values of glass fibres (Taj et al., 2007).

2.8 APPLICATION OF NATURAL FIBRE COMPOSITES

The natural fibre composites applications are:

Building and construction industry: panels for partition and false ceiling, partition boards,

wall, floor, window and door frames, roof tiles, mobile or pre-fabricated buildings which can be

used in times of natural calamities such as floods, cyclones, earthquakes, etc.

Furniture: chair, table, shower, bath units, etc.

Electric devices: electrical appliances, pipes, etc.

Everyday applications: lampshades, suitcases, helmets, etc.

Transportation: automobile and railway coach interior, boat. Etc.

2.8 UNSATURATED POLYESTER RESIN

Unsaturated Polyester Resin (UPR) is used for a wide variety of industrial and consumer

applications. In fact, more than 0.8 billion kg was consumed in the United States in 1999. This

consumption can be split into two major categories of applications; reinforced and non-

reinforced. In reinforced applications, resin and reinforcement, such as fibre glass, are used

together to produce a composite with improved physical properties. Typical reinforced

21
applications are boats, cars, shower stalls, building panels, and corrosion-resistant tanks and

pipes. Non-fibre reinforced applications generally have a mineral ―filler‖ incorporated into the

composite for property modification. Some typical non-fibre reinforced applications are sinks,

bowling balls, and coatings. Polyester resin composites are costly and the physical properties

canbe tailoredtospecificapplications (Hansmann2003).Another advantage of polyester resin

composites is that they can be cured in a variety of ways without altering the physical properties

of the finished part consequently, polyester resin composites compete favorably in custom

markets. Unsaturated Polyester Resinis a thermoset, capable of being cured from a liquid or solid

state when subjected to the right conditions. Unsaturated polyester differs from saturated

polyester such as Terylene which cannot be cured in this way. It is usual, however, to refer to

Unsaturated Polyester Resin as ‗Polyester Resins (Bharath,2012). Unsaturated polyester resins

are very versatile as the processing into a composite product can be done using several

techniques; hand lay-up and spray lay-up lamination. Casting, compression molding, pultrusion,

resin transfermoulding, vacuum infusion and filament winding. In chemistry the reaction of a

base with an acid produces a salt. Similarly, in organic chemistry the reaction of an alcohol with

an organic acid produces an ester and water. By using special alcohols, such as glycol, in a

reaction with di-basic acids, a polyester and water will be produced. This reaction, together with

the addition of compounds such as unsaturated di-basic acids and cross-,inking monomers, forms

the basic process of polyester manufacture as a resultthere is a whole range of polyester made

from different acids, glycols and monomers, all having varying properties(Hansmann,2003).

Unsaturated polyester resins are further classified into the following categories:

22
• Ortho-phthalic polyesters resins: made from ortho-phthalic anhydride are generally cheaper

than the other two classes of unsaturated polyester resins. They are usually used to manufacture

general purpose composite laminates where only moderate structural properties are required.

• Iso-phthalic polyesters resins: made from Iso-phthalic acid. These resins are much

morestructurally competent than the ortho-phthalic resins. They also have superior corrosion

resistance and are used for more demanding applications.

• Tere-phthalate polyester resins:made from tere-phthalic acid,These resins are currently made in

small volumes and are considered a specialty resin. Although they tend to have better thermal

and chemical resistance than iso-phthalic resins they are difficult to manufacture. Propylene

glycol is the predominant alcohol used in producing the various types of unsaturated polyester

resins. Other alcohols like neo-pentyl glycol, di-ethylene glycol and ethylene glycol are also used

in the production of unsaturated polyester resins. Each of these alcohols contributes to the final

polymer characteristics, which includes heat distortion temperature, physical strength, water

uptake and weather resistance(Bharath,2012). Isophthalic resins tend to show higher tensile and

flexural properties than orthophthalic resins. This may be because isophthalics usually form

more linear, higher-molecular-weight polymers than orthophthalic (Hansmann,2003).

23
Figure 2.3: Shows some monomers of unsaturated polyester (David and Gurit, 2015)

Figure 2.4:Chemical Synthesis of unsaturated Polyester resin.(David and Gurit.2015)

24
Most polyester resins are viscous, pale coloured liquids consisting of a solution of polyester in a

monomer which is usually styrene. The addition of styrene in amounts of up to 50%helps to

make the resin easier to handle by reducing its viscosity. The styrene also performs the vital

function of enabling the resin to cure from a liquid to a solid by cross-linking the molecular

chains of the polyester, without the evolution of any by-products (Dholakiya, 2012). These resins

can therefore be moulded without the use of pressure and are called contact or low pressure

resins. Polyester resins have a limited storage life as they will set or gel on their own over a long

period of time. Often small quantities of inhibitor are added during the resin manufacture to slow

this gelling actionDavid and Gurit (2015) for use in moulding, a polyester resin requires the

addition of several ancillary products, such as catalyst, accelerator and additives.

Manufacturer may supply the resin in its basic form or with any of the ancillary products already

included. Resins can be formulated to the moulder‘s requirement ready for the addition 21

of the catalyst prior to moulding. As has been mentioned, given time an Unsaturated Polyester

Resinwill set by itself. This rate of polymerization is slow for practical purposes and therefore

catalysts and accelerators are used for polymerization of the resin within a practical time period.

Catalysts are added to resin system shortly before use to initiate the polymerization reaction. The

catalyst does not take part in the chemical reaction but simply activates the process. An

accelerator added to the catalyzed resin to enable the reaction to proceed at workshop

temperature and/or at a greater rate. Since accelerators have little influence on the resin in the

catalyst they are sometimes added to the resin by the polyester manufacturer to create a ‗pre-

accelerated resinDavid and Gurit (2015)With the addition of styrene (S) and in the presence of

catalyst, the styrene cross-linked the polymer chains at each of the reactive sites to form a highly

complex three dimensional network.

25
 Key: S=Styrene

Figure 2.5: Schematic representation of unsaturated polyester resin (cured) (David and
Gurit 2015)

The Polyester Resin is then said to be cured. It is now a chemically (and usually) hard solid. The

cross-linking or curing process is called polymerization. It is a non-reversible chemical reaction.

The side-by-side nature of this cross-linking of the molecular chains tends to mean that polyester

laminates suffers from brittleness when shock loadings are applied. Great care is needed in the

preparation of the resin mix prior to moulding. The resin and any additives must be carefully

stirred to disperse all the components evenly before the catalyst isadded. This stirring must be

thorough and careful as any air introduced into the resin mix affects the quality of the final

moulding. This is especially so when laminating with layers of reinforcing materials as air

bubbles can be formed within the resultant laminate which can weaken the structure. It is also

important to add the accelerator and catalyst in carefully measured amounts to control the

polymerization reaction to give the best material properties. Too much catalyst will cause too

rapid a gelation time, whereas too little catalyst will result in under-cure. Colouring of the resin

mix can be carried out with pigments. The choice of a suitable pigment material, even though

only added at about 3% resin weight, must be carefully considered as it‘s easy to affect the

curing reaction and degrade the final laminate by use of unsuitable pigments. Filler materials are

used extensively with Polyester Resins for a variety of reasons including:

26
-To reduce the cost of the moulding

-To facilitate the moulding

-To impart specific properties to the mould Fillers are often added in quantities up to 50%of the

resin weight such addition levels will affect the flexural and tensile strength of the laminate. The

use of fillers can be beneficial in the laminating or casting of thick components where otherwise

considerable exothermic heating can occur. Addition of certain fillers can also contribute to

increasing the fire-resistance of the laminate (David and Gurit2015).

2.9 COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composite material is a material composed of two or more distinct phases (matrix phase and

reinforcing phase) and having bulk properties significantly different from those of any of the

constituents. Also, Composites are engineering materials made from two or more constituent

materials that remain separate and distinct on microscope level while forming a single

component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least

one portion of each type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the

reinforcement material by maintaining their relative position. The reinforcement impacts their

special mechanical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces materials

properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the widevariety of matrix

strengthening materials allows the designer of the product or structure to choose an optimum

combination. Engineered composite materials must be forced to shape(Sudipt and Ananda,,

2008). The matrix material can be introduced to the reinforcement before or after the

reinforcement material is placed into the mold cavity or onto mold surface. The matrix material

experiences a melding event, after which the part shape is essentially set. Depending on the

nature of the matrix material, this melding event can occur in various ways such as chemical

27
polymerization or solidification from the melted state.High performance composites consist of

high modulus, high strength filaments bonded together by a much softer matrix to form structure

material marked by high modulus and high strength. Composites differ from ordinary materials

in several aspects. Properties are variable depending primarily on fibres and matrix properties,

volume content of these constituents, and the orientation and geometry of fibres. All are

controllable and selected by a fabricator to fulfill structural requirement for a given application.

Ordinary materials are isotropic and have more nearly fixed properties, whereas the composites

are anisotropic, having properties dependent on the axis of testing.

However, Favorable properties of composites materials are high stiffness and high strength, low

density, high temperature stability, high electrical and thermal conductivity, adjustable

coefficient of thermal expansion, corrosion resistance, improved wear resistance etc (Ananda,

and Sudipt, 2008).

2.10 DEFINITION OF COMPOSITES

The most widely used meaning is the following one, which has been stated by Jartiz

"Composites are multifunctional material systems that provide characteristics not obtainable

from any discrete material. They are cohesive structures made by physically combining two or

more compatible materials, different in composition and characteristics and sometimes in form.

In the broader significance; the combination has its own distinctive properties. In terms of

strength to resistance to heat or some other desirable quality, it is better than either of the

components alone or radically different from either of them. Beghezan defines as "The

composites are compound materials which differ from alloys by the fact thai the individual

components retain their characteristics but are so incorporated into the composite as to take

28
advantage only of their attributes and not of their short comings", in order to obtain improved

materials.

Figure 2.6 constituent of composite material. (www.researchgate.net/figure April 2017)

2.11 TYPES OF COMPOSITES

For the sake of simplicity, however, composites can be grouped into (Amar et al.,2005).

Categories based on the nature of the matrix each type possesses. Broadly, composite materials

can be classified into three groups on the basis of matrix material. They are:

a) Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

b) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)

c) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

2.11.1 Metal Matrix Composite

Metal matrix composite (MMC) consists of a metallic matrix and reinforcement of metal (lead,

tungsten, molybdenum) or ceramic (oxides, carbides). Matrix materials used generally are

aluminum, magnesium, titanium but for high temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel

alloy are preferred. Some of the common metal matrix composites are:

a. Aluminum Matrix Composite

29
b. Magnesium Matrix Composite

c. Titanium Matrix Composite

d. Copper Matrix Composite

2.11.1.1 Aluminum Matrix Composite

This is the widest group of MMC, and matrix systems are alumina (A1 2O3) or silicon carbide

(SiC) particles up to 15-70 (vol %). Reinforcement can be in the form of continuous fibres of

alumina, silicon carbide, graphite or discontinuous fibres of alumina. They can be processed by

powder metallurgy (sintering), stir casting, and infiltration processes(Tolosa et al.,

2010).Important properties of aluminum matrix composites are:

1. Low density

2. High stiffness

3. High thermal conductivity

4. Excellent abrasion resistance

5. Good strength at elevated temperatures

Some of the important applications of aluminum matrix composites are automotive parts

(pistons, push rods, brake components), brake rotors for high speed trains, bicycles, golf clubs,

electronic substrates, cores for high voltage electrical cables.

2.11.1.2Magnesium Matrix Composites:

Magnesium matrix composites are reinforced by silicon carbide particles generally and important

properties are as follows (Hashimet al., 2000).

1. Low density

2. High stiffness

3. High wear resistance

30
4. Good creep resistance

5. Good strength at elevated temperatures

Magnesium matrix composites (MMC) are used for manufacturing components for racing cars,

automotive brake system, and aircraft parts (gearbox, transmission, compressor and engine).

2.11.1.2 Titanium Matrix Composites

Titanium matrix composites are reinforced by continuous monofilament of silicon carbide fibre

and titanium boride/titanium carbide particles(Yufeng and Young, 2011). Powder metallurgy

(sintering) is used for fabrication of titanium matrix composites, some of the important properties

of these composite are enlisted below:

1. High strength

2. High stiffness

3. High thermal stability

4. goodwear resistance

5. Good Creep Resistance

Important applications of titanium matrix composites are structural components of F-16 jet such

as landing gear, turbine engine components (fan blade, piston, synchronization ring, connecting

link, shaft, disc), automotive engine components, drive train parts, and machine components.

2.11.1.3 Copper Matrix Composites

A Copper matrix composite are reinforced by continuous fibres of carbon, silicon carbon,

tungsten, stainless steel and silicon carbide particles (Pierre et al., 2011). Powder metallurgy

(sintering) and infiltration technique are used for fabrication of these composites. Important

features offered by copper matrix composite are:

1. High stiffness

31
2. Good wear resistance

3. High thermal conductivity

4. Good electrical conductivity

5. Low coefficient of thermal expansion

Applications of copper matrix: Metal matrix composite are more expensive than conventional

composites, therefore should be used where improved properties and better performance are

required. Most common uses are aircraft components, space systems and sports equipments.

They can be used in wide temperature range, do not absorb moisture, have better conductivity,

good resistance to radiation damage, and do not display outgassing. Processing of these

composites is difficult, and available experience in their usage is also limited. Tank armors can

be made of metal matrix composites (steel reinforced with boron nitride as reinforcement

because it is very stiff and does not dissolve in molten steel).

2.11.2 Ceramic Matrix Composites

Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) consists of ceramic matrix combined with a ceramic

dispersed phase (oxides, carbides). Matrix material for long fibre composite is silicon carbide,

alumina, alumina-silica, and carbon. Ceramic matrix composites are designed to improve

brittleness of conventional ceramics, which was a major disadvantage with ceramics.

Reinforcement can be either continuous or discontinuous fibres. Important reinforcement can be

whiskers of silicon carbide, titanium boride, and zirconium oxide. Monofilament fibres produce

stronger interfacial bonding with matrix material and improve the toughness. Some of the

important properties of CMC are:

1. High stiffness

32
2. Good thermal stability

3. Very high fracture toughness

4. High thermal shock resistance

5. Improved dynamical load capability

6. High corrosion resistance at high temperature

7. Good mechanical strength at high temperature

2.11.3Polymer Matrix Composites

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) can be classified into the following groups:

a. Thermoset composite polymer

b. Thermoplastic composite polymer

2.12 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse

design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some

advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows:

1. Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties.

2. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength).

3. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminum

and so forth.

4. Composites are less noisy while in operationand provide lower vibration transmission than

metals.

33
5. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored 10 meet performance needs and

complex design requirements.

6. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy.

2.13 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES

Composite material is a material composed of two or more distinct phases (matrix phase and

dispersed phase) and having bulk properties significantly different forms those of any of the

constituents.

 Matrix phase: The primary phase, having a continuous character, is called matrix.

Matrix is usually more ductile and less hard phase. It holds the dispersed phase and

shares a load with it.

 Dispersed (reinforcing) phase: The second phase (or phases) is embedded in the matrix

in a discontinuous form. This secondary phase is called dispersed phase. Dispersed phase

is usually stronger than the matrix, therefore it is sometimes called reinforcing phase.

There are two classification systems of composite materials. One of them is based on the matrix

material (metal, ceramic, and polymer) and the second is based on the material structure:

2.13.1Classification of composites I (based on matrix material)

1. Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminum, magnesium,

iron, cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead,

tungsten, molybdenum) phase.

2. Ceramic Matrix Composites are composed of a ceramic matrix and embedded fibers of

other ceramic material (dispersed phase).

34
 3. Polymer Matrix Composites are composed of a matrix from thermoset (Unsaturated

Polyester (UP), Epoxy (EP)) or thermoplastic (Polycarbonate (PC), Polyvinylchloride,

Nylon, Polystyrene) and embedded glass, carbon, steel or Kevlar fibers (dispersed phase).

2.13.2 Classification of composite materials II(based on reinforcing material structure)

1. Particulate Composites: Particulate Composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a

dispersed phase in form of particles.

 Composites with random orientation of particles.

 Composites with preferred orientation of particles. Dispersed phase of these materials

consists of two-dimensional flat platelets (flakes), laid parallel to each other.

2. Fibrous Composites: Short-fibre reinforced composites. Short-fiber reinforced

composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form of discontinuous

fibers (length < 100*diameter).

 Composites with random orientation of fibers.

 Composites with preferred orientation of fibers.

3. Long-fiber reinforced composites: Long-fiber reinforced composites consist of a matrix

reinforced by a dispersed phase in form of continuous fibers.

 Unidirectional orientation of fibers.

 Bidirectional orientation of fibers (woven).

Laminate Composites: When a fiber reinforced composite consists of several layers with

different fiber orientations, it is called multilayer (angle-ply) composite

(http://webpages.charter.net).

35
2.14 CONSTITUENTS OF COMPOSITES

1. Matrices

2. Reinforcing Fibres

2.14.1 Matrices

The role of matrix in a fibre-reinforced composite is to transfer stress between the fibres, to

provide a barrier against an adverse environment and to protect the surface of the fibres from

mechanical abrasion. The matrix plays a major role in the tensile load carrying capacity of a

composite structure. The binding agent or matrix in the composite is of critical importance. Four

major types of matrices have been reported: Polymeric, Metallic, Ceramic and Carbon. Polymer

resins have been divided broadly into two categories: Thermosetting and Thermoplastics.

Thermosetting Polymer

Thermoset is a hard and stiff crosslinked material that does not soften or become moldable when

heated (Sinha, 2000). Thermosets are stiff and do not stretch the way that elastomers and

thermoplastics do. Several types of polymers have been used as matrices for natural fibre

composites. Most commonly used thermoset polymers are epoxy resins,Unsaturated polyester

resins, Vinyl Ester, Phenolic Epoxy, Novolac and Polyamide. Unsaturated polyesters are

extremely versatile in properties and applications, and have been a popular thermoset used in

polymer matrix composites (Sharifah, 2005). They are widely produced industrially as they

possess many advantages compared to other thermosetting resins including room temperature

cure capability, good mechanical properties and transparency.

Thermoplastics Polymer

Thermoplastics are polymers that require heat to make them process able (Sharifahet al., 2005).

After cooling, such materials retain their shape. In addition, these polymers may be reheated and

36
reformed, often without significant changes in their properties. The thermoplastics which have

been used as matrix for natural fibre reinforced composites are as follows: High density

polyethene(HDPE). Low density polyethene (LDPE), Chlorinated polyethene (CPE),

Polypropylene (PP), Normal polystyrene(NPS), Poly Vinyl chloride (PVC). Mixtures of polymer

recycled thermoplastics are those thermoplastics useable for natural fibre reinforced composites,

whose processing temperature (temperature at which fibre is incorporated into polymer matrix)

does not exceed 230°C these are polyolefines, like polyethene and polypropylene. Technical

thermoplastics, like polyamides, polyesters and polycarbonates require processing temperatures

> 250°C and are therefore not useable for such composite processing without fibre degradation.

2.14.2 Reinforcing fibres

The three most common types of reinforcing fibres include glass, carbon, and aramid fibres.

Carbon fibres are used for reinforcing certain matrix materials to form composites. Carbon

fibresare unidirectional reinforcements and can be arranged in such a way in the composite that it

is stronger in the direction, which must bear loads. The physical properties of carbon fibre

reinforced composite materials depend considerably on the nature of the matrix, the fibre

alignment, the volume fraction of the fibre and matrix, and on the molding conditions. Several

types of matrix materials such as glass and ceramics, metal and plastics have been used as

matrices for reinforcement by carbon fibre. Carbon fibre composites, particularly those with

polymer malrices, have become the dominant advanced composite materials for aerospace,

automobile, sporting goods and other applications due to their high strength, high modulus, low

density, and reasonable cost for application requiring high temperature resistance as in the case

of space crafts.

Glass fibres

37
Glass fibres are the most common of all reinforcing fibres for polymeric (plastic) matrix

composites (PMCs). The principal advantages of glass fibre are low cost, high tensile strength,

high chemical resistance and excellent insulating properties. The two types of glass fibres

commonly used in the fibre reinforced plastics industries are E-glass and S-glass. Another type

known as C-glass is used in chemical applications requiring greater corrosion resistance to acids

than is provided by E-glass.

Kevlar fibres

Kevlar belongs to a group of highly crystalline aramid (aromatic amide) fibres that have the

lowest specific gravity and the highest tensile strength to weight ratio among the current

reinforcing fibres. They are being used as reinforcement in many marine and aerospace

applications.

Boron fibres

The most prominent feature of boron fibre is their extremely high tensile modulus.Boron fibres

offer excellent resistance to buckling, which in turn contributes to highcompressive strength for

boron fibre reinforced composites.

38
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS

Cow hair bungi breed (Gotten from local abattoir in zaria), Unsaturated Polyester resin,

Hydrogen Perioxide, Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide (catalyst), and Cobalt Naphthalene

(accelerator) gotten from Olasco Chemical Company Zaria, Nigeria.

3.1 Equipment

The equipment/apparatus for this work are listed below:

i. Electronic weighing balance(Sartorius. Model no - ED2245)

ii. Indentec Universal hardness tester. Model no – 8187.5LKV(B)

39
 iii. Charpy Impact Testing Machine, 15J and 25J Capacity (Cat Nr. Model:412)

iv. Stop watch

v. 120 x 120 x 3 (mm) glass Mold

vi. Aluminum foil

vii. Blender

viii. Mold releasing agent (paraffin oil).

3.2 METHODS

3.2.1 Chemical Treatment of Cow Hair

The cow hair were thoroughly washed with detergent and rinsed with distilled water followed by

drying at room temperature for 24 hours to remove impurities and blood stains from the fibres.

The cleaned fibres were separated into two portions for chemical treatments and controlled

experimentations. The fibres to be chemically treated were dipped in separate containers

containing of distilled waterand ofhydrogen peroxide.

The container was placed inside a shaker water bath maintained at 50°C for 4 hours to effectively

remove lipids from the surfaces of thefibres in order to improve wet ability and interfacial

adhesion between the fibres and the matrix. The chemically treated fibres were then rinsed with

distilled water to remove any residual chemicals left on the surfaces of the fibres and this was

ensued by oven drying at 50°C.

3.2.1 PRODUCTION OF COMPOSITE SHEET

The cow hair and the unsaturated polyester were mixed by lay-hand method. The volume of the

unsaturated polyester that was used was calculated using the volume of the mould. A measuring

cylinder was used to measure the volume of the unsaturated polyester into the beaker. The

40
hardener was added and thoroughly mixed and stir at low speed until it is uniform, the hardener

and accelerator occupies 2% of the total volume. The glass mould was then covered with an

aluminum foil and coated with a mould releasing agent (paraffin oil). The filler was added and

properly mix together and pour into the prepared mould. The composite was pressed between

aluminum foil so as to give easy separation on the mould. Exothermic reaction was notice due to

heat that was evolved. After some minute, the sample was beplasticize and a composite was be

formed and removed.The Composites filled with treated and untreated cow hair fibre with 0.3%,

0.6 %, 0.9%, 1.2%, 1.5% weight of the matrix (unsaturated polyester) were prepared as shown in

the table below.

Table 3.1: weight of the matrix (unsaturated polyester)

Fibre % of Mass of cow hair Mass of Total mass (g)
loading unsaturated s(g) unsaturated
(%) polyester polyester (g)

0 100 0 82.02 82.02

5 95 0.3 81.72 82.02
10 90 0.6 81.42 82.02
15 85 0.9 81.12 82.02
20 80 1.2 80.82 82.02
25 75 1.5 80.52 82.02

3.3 TESTING OF COMPOSITES

Evaluation of physical, mechanical and other characteristics of objects made from plastics is a

function, which the plastic engineers are frequently required to perform. The purpose may be

41
control of quality in production, acceptance testing against specifications, establishment of data

for engineering and design or other end of substantial economic importance

3.4 MECHANICAL TESTS

3.4.1Tensile Test:

The test samples in dumb-bell shape of the required standard dimensions according to

ASTMD638 were cut and clamped between the upper and lower jawsof the type W Monsanto

tensometer and the machine was loaded manually. The sample was stretched gradually with 42

the application of force, till it reached its breaking point. Reading of maximum load and

elongation at break were taken accordingly. The test was repeated five times for each of the

composites samples and the average values recorded accordingly.

3.4.2Impact Test

The impact test of the composite samples was conducted using Cat Nr.412 Charpy Impact

Testing Machine 15 joules capacity.The tests were conducted according to ASTM D-256. Impact

tests were conducted on the samples measuring 120 mm x 120 mm x 10 mm. the pendulum

operating at 15-25 joules was released to calibrate the machine. The test samples are then

gripped horizontally in a vice and the force required to break the bar would be released from the

freely swinging pendulum. The value of the angle through which the pendulum will swing before

the test sample will be broken corresponded with the value of the energy absorbed in breaking

the sample and this was read from the calibrated scale on the machine. The energy absorbed in

breaking the specimen will be recorded.

42
3.4.3 Hardness test

The Indentec Universal Hardness Testing Machine Model 8187.5 LKV ―B Rockwell HRF

indentor (1/16‖ steel ball) with minor load 10kg and major load 60k was used in measuring the

hardness using the shore scale according to ASTM D2240. It consists of an indenter, a graduated

circular tube and a flat surface which the sample /material to be tested are mounted or laid on.

The sample was placed on the flat surface and the indenter was forced on the surface of the

specimen, the load was maintained at maximum time of 10 to 15seconds, and the test was

repeated five times and the averages of each tests result were recorded accordingly.

3.4.5 Flexural Test

Flexural strength also known as modulus of rapture, bend strength or fracture strength is a

material property, known as the stress in a material just before it yields in a flexure test 43

(Hodgkinson, 2000). The three point bending test was conducted according to ASTM D790 with

Cat Nr.261 Universal Material Testing Machine-100KN. At least three rectangular beam samples

were tested at a support span length of 70mm, the width and thickness was measured correctly

using vanier caliper. The samples were centre loaded in 3-point bending as a simply supported

beam,using 3mm diameter supports and loading bar. The deformation in mm and load in KN

were recorded and the tests were repeated five times the average values recorded accordingly.

The flexural strengths were calculated using the following equation:

Flexural Strength=3PL/2bd2 (MPa)

43
3.5 PHYSICAL TESTS

3.5.1 Density

Densities of the composites were determined according ASTM D792-13. It is the mass in grams

per unit volume in cm3 of a substance. A measuring cylinder (250ml) was rinsed thoroughly, a

measured quantity of distilled water (60ml) was poured into the cylinder, composites samples

were cut to about (1x1cm) and immersed into the cylinder containing the distilled water, and the

displacement of water volume was observed, and the density of the composite were determined

using the weight of the composite samples over the volume of water displaced in the cylinder.

mass
Density=
volume

The unit of density is grams per centimetre cube (g/cm3)

3.5.2 Water Absorption Test

Water absorption was conducted according to ASTM 2842. Eleven (11) samples were cut to a

specific size (2X1cm) and weighed using weighing balance correct to two (2) decimal places.

The weighed samples were placed in a plastic container and enough water was added so that they

were completely immersed. The composites samples were left in the water for 24hrs, thereafter,

the samples were removed from the water clean with cloth to eliminate surface moisture, re-

weighed.Same procedure was repeated for 30days reweighing after every 48hrs and the

percentage water absorption was calculated using the equation below.

final weight −initial weight

% water absorbtion= ×100
initial weight

44
3.5.3Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Scanning Electron Microscope is a type of microscope that produces image of a sample by

scanning it with a focused beam of electron. The electron interacts with the atoms in the sample,

producing various signals that can be detected and that contain information about the samples

surface Topography, sub-surface information and compositional difference. SEM is used to

determine the size, distribution and orientation of fibres or particles, it identifies and characterize

any defects (voids, debond, fibre pullout and fibre bonding). It also gives information on the

degree of bonding between the matrix and reinforcement or between 36 layers.To prepare

samples for SEM, insulating samples are coated with thin layer of Gold, Aluminum or Carbon by

evaporation or sputtering.Samples can be viewed with different Kilo Voltage and micrographs

can be obtainedat different magnifications (Webinar,2011).

45
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 TENSILE STRENGTH

Control
Treated
Tensile strenght (Mpa)

cow hair
Untreated
cow hair2

fibre loading (wt%)

Figure 4.1Tensile Strength versus Filler loading for treated and untreated cow hair
fibre/UPRComposites
The tensile strength of a material is the maximum load applied to the material in stretching it to

rapture. Filler type plays an important role in the determination of mechanical properties of

cellulose filled thermosets and thermoplastic composites. The most crucial factor affecting the

mechanical properties of fibre-reinforced materials is the fibre matrix interfacial bonding, it is

determined by several factors such as the nature of the fibre and polymer components, the

processing method and fibre treatment (Ratnamet al,2008).Tensile is also the maximum tensile

stress a material can withstand before failure i.e. before it breaks.

46
In this work, it can be deduced from figure 4.1that the control with 100% UPRhas the highest

tensile strengthfollowed by 25% fibre loading with 48.32Mpa for treated cow hair followed by

25% fibre loading with 47.65Mpa foruntreated cow hair.

However there was a general increase in the tensile strength of the composite with increase in

both treated and untreated cow hair with fibre loading from 5%, 10%,15%, 20% and 25%except

for 15% for the treated cow hair with 47.89Mpa which may be due to the removal of lipids from

the surface of the fibres exposing the scraes making it more rough for mechanical anchorage for

better adhesion with the matrix, poor dispersion of the filler mayalso cause decrease in strength

observed in these composites which could be attributed to agglomerate formation which could

have resulted in the formation of stress Centre‘s in the composites which initiate failure on

application of stress. Similar results have been reported by ShenoyandMelo(2007) From the

result, This implies that the composites with composition 5%,10%, 15%,20% ,25%and

100%UPR can produce composites of adequate strength value for useful applications such as

book shelf‘s, pharmaceutical shelf‘s, shoe horns, particle board and partition wall.

47
4.1.1 Elongation at Break

Elongation at break (%)

Control

Treated cow
hair

Untreated
cow hair

Fibre loading (wt%)

Figure 4.2: Elongation at break Versus Filler loading for treated and untreated cow
hair/UPR Composites
Elongation at break or strain is expressed as the ratio of total deformation to the initial dimension

of the material body in which forces are being applied (Shuhadah and Supri, 2009). Figure

4.2show the effect of fibre loading on the elongation at break of Unsaturated Polyester Resin

composites. The increase of filler loading in the Unsaturated Polyester Resinmatrix resulted in

the stiffening and hardening of the composite which reduced its ductility and led to lower

elongation property. The reduction in the elongation at break with the increasing fibre loading

indicates the incapability of the filler to support the stress transfer from polymer matrix to the

fibre.Such a reduction in elongation at break of polymer composites with increase in fibre

content, irrespective of filler particle size and length has been reported by (Shuhadah and Supri,

2009). As shown in figure 4.2 100%URP has the highest elongation at break with a value of

46.30Mpa compared to 5% treated cow hair with 43.32Mpa then after words it begins to drop

this indicates that the fibres had hardened the composites and reduces their ductility. These

48
results could be attributed to less agglomerate formation in the composites and good fibre-

matrix bonding.

4.1.2 Tensile Modulus

Control
Tensile modulus

Treated cow
hair
Untreated
cow hair

Filler loading (wt%)

Figure 4.3: Tensile modulus Versus Filler loading for treated and untreated cow hair/UPR
Composites
As shown in figure 4.3 it is noted that it increases with increase fibre loading at 5% to 25%

except for treated cow hair of 10% with 251.08Mpa. The increaseobsereved for 5%,

10%,15%,20%,and 25% for both treated and unteated cow hair may be due to the fact that

maximum reinforcement was obtained at that level due to better stress transferred from the

matrix to the fibre.

49
4.2 FLEXURAL STRENGHT TEST

Flectural strength (Mpa)

Control
Treated cow
hair
Untreated cow
hair

Fibre loading (wt%)

Figure 4.4: Flexural Strength versus Filler loading of Treated and untreated cow hair/UPR
composite.
Flexural strength or bending strength is the stress in a material just before it yields. During

introduction of fillers in to matrix, air may be trapped in the material. After curing micro voids

may be formed in the composites along the individual fillers due to the fibre spacing in between

the composite, which has adverse effect on the mechanical properties of the composites (Kabir,

et al., 2011).Formation of agglomerates result in creation of stress centres in the composites

contributing to failure in mechanical properties of the composites (Shenoy and Melo, 2007).

Flexural strength is also known as bending strength or fracture strength is defined as material’s

ability to resist deformation under load. It was observed from figure 4.4 that the control sample

100% UPR has the highest bend strength with 67,40Mpa compared to 5% for treated and

untrated cow hair with 38.15Mpa and 35.13Mpa respectively while the sample with 10% and

15% fibre loading for both treated and untreated cow hair with 33.64Mpa,33.56Mpa,31.57Mpa

and 31.52Mpa respectively has the lowest bend strength untreated cow hair respectively this

50
may be attributed to the fact that matrix-fibre interfacial bond decreases with increase fibre

content.

4.2.1 FLEXURAL MODULUS

Flexural modulus (Mpa)

Control

Untreated
cow hair

Untreated
cow hair

Fibre loading (wt%)

Figure 4.5: Flexural modulus versus Filler loading of Treated and untreated cow hair/UPR
composite.
The variation of the flexural modulus was observed in figure 4.5 the result shows that 100%UPR

with 325.13Mpa followed by 10% fibre loading with 321.41Mpa and 319.20Mp for both treated

and untreated cow hair. From figure 4.5 there is a gradual decrease at 15% and 25% fibre loading

with for both the treated and untreated cow hair with 272.31Mpa and 222.91Mpa respectively

this result shows that the fibre has significant effect on flexural modulus, increasing fibreloading

decreases matrix which is as a result of the dissimination of stress transferred from matrix to the

fibre which also causes inadequate wetting thus leads to inter-facial adhesion between the matrix

and fibre

51
4.3 IMPACT TEST

Impact strength (J/m)

Control
Treated
cow hair
Untreated
cow hair

Fibre loading (wt%)

Figu
re 4.6: impact strength versus filler loading of treated and untreated cow
hair/UPR composite
Impact strength is the ability of the composites material to withstand shock loading or the ability

of a material to absorb mechanical energy in the process of deformation and fracture under

impact loading. Presence of longitudinal fibres at the loading points contributes to increase in the

resistance and invariably better mechanical properties. This can only take place if the interfacial

adhesion between the matrix and the filler will not result into a crack, lowering the impact

strength of the composites. As fibre loading increase there is a disturbance in the three-

dimensional network of the polymer matrix resulting into decrease in mobility of matrix

molecules.The decrease in impact strength can be attributed to saturation of the 100%UPR by

the fibre, thus, preventing proper bonding of the fillers to form strong composites.

From figure 4.6 it can be observed that impact decreases with general increase in fibre loading.

This may be attributed to the fact that matrix fibre interfacial bond strength decreases with

52
increase in fibre content but on the hand an increase was noticed with increase in fibre loading.

The maximum impact strength was at 15% for both treated and untreated cow hair with

93.78Mpa and 92.98Mpa due to the better circulation of stress transferred from matrix to the

fibre.

4.4 HARDNESS TEST

Hardness (Shore A)

Control

Treated
cow hair

Untreated
cow hair

Fibre loading (wt%)

Figure:4.7: hardness versus Filler loading of Treated and untreated cow hair/UPR
composite
Hardness is the measure of a materials resistance to surface indentation, it is also a function of

the stress required to produce some specific type of surface deformation (Swamyet al,2011). The

above table and figure show the variation of hardness with percentage fibreloading for treated

and untreated cow hairfibre/UPR composites. It was observed that hardness value increases with

increase in filler loading. Figure above4.7 show the variation of hardness with percentage fibre

loading for treated and untreated cow hair composites. It was observed that 100%UPR have the

lowest hardness with 24.5Mpa followed by 5%,10%,15%,20% and 25% for treated and untreated

53
cow hair with 30.43Mpa,31.62Mpa,31.74Mpa,32.17Mpa, respectively hardness value increases

with increase infibre loading which may be due to the proper dispersion of the fibre in the

matrix.

4.5 PHYSICAL TEST

4.5.1 DENSITY

Control
Density (g/cm3)

Treated
cow hair

Untreated
cow hair

Fibre loading (wt%)

Figure 4.8 Density versus filler loading of treated and untreated cow hair/UPR composite
The effect of fibre loading on density is depicted in figure 4.8 the increment of fibre loading

increases the density of the material from 100%UPR with 1.68 is the lowest compared to 5% to

25% for both treated and untreated cow hair fibrethis is due to the proper distribution of the cow

hair and the proper bonding of the fibre with the matrix. Therefore increasing fibre loading

increases the density of the composite.

Note: The following procedure was used to determine density.

54
Density = mass / volume……………..1

But volume = length x width x thickness……………….2

After the volume measurement, the mass of the samples were weighed on a weighing balance.

The values gotten from density calculation are then used to plot the graph of density against

Fibre loading as shown in figure 4.8

4.5: WATER ABSORPTION TEST

% water absorption

control
5%
20%
30%
40%
50%

Time (days)

Figure 4.9: showing the percentage water uptake of treated cow hair/Unsaturated
Polyester composites at different fibre loading for 1 to 30 days.

55
 % water absorption

control
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%

Time (days)

Figure 4.10: showing the percentage water uptake untreated cow hair/Unsaturated
Polyester composites at different fibre loading for 1 to 30 days.

Fig. 4.9/4.10 respectively shows the percentage water absorption of treated cow hair fibre and

untreated cow hair fibre/unsaturated polyester composites at different filler loadings for 1 to 30

days. It was found that the highest water absorption of 2.60% was obtained with 50%

fibreloading of treated cow hair. This could be attributed to formation of voids in the composite.

These voids formed allow the penetration of water into the composite. It could also be as a result

of cracks in the composite. The lowest percentage of water absorption found to be 0.10% was

obtained with the control sample (0% filler loading). The water absorbed may be attributed to the

slight hygroscopic nature of the fibre used. The control sample of 100%Unsaturated polyester

resin absorbed moisture up to 0.17%. This may be attributed to the amorphous nature of cow hair

fibreThis increase in the percentage of water absorption when cow hair fibre was increased can

be attributed to the fact that animal fibres tends to absorb more moisture as they are exposed

56
longer in water thereby gradually degrading the fibres in the composite by the action of

microorganisms in water creating voids in the structure which reduces the strength of the

composite. The treated cow hair fibre has better enhancement than untreated cow hair which may

be due to increase in wettability of the cow hair fibre when treated with hydrogen peroxide.

4.6 FTIR (INFRARED SPECTRAL RESULT)

Figure 4.10: FTIR result for treated cow hair

57
Figure 4.10: FTIR result for untreated cow hair

The FTIR for the treated and untreated cow hair shown in figure 4.10 and 4.11 revealed that the

chemical treatment of the cow hair with hydrogen perioxide only have effect on the surface of

the fibre by distorting the surface making it rough and removing lipid which helps in the

mechanical anchorage between the matrix and the fibre

58
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSIONS

This work was carried out to study the physical and mechanical properties of cow hair

fibre/unsaturated polyester composite. The work revealed that the cow hair obtained from the

skin of cow can also be use as filler in unsaturated polyester resins. The research encourage the

use of cow hair fibrewaste material which is not useful alone but may be very useful as

reinforced material to create a new composite material that has good properties and is cheap, and

can help in reducing the environmental pollutions. The effects of cow hairsfibre on some

mechanical properties of unsaturated polyester were investigated. The technique employed was

the hand lay-up which is the old and easier method. The tensile and flexural strength of both the

treated and untreated cow hair fibre tend to increase with increased fibre loading with 48.32MPa

at 25% and 46.04MPa respectively with but the treated with higher value because of the removal

of lipids from the scares of the fibre to enable better mechanical anchorage between the matrix

and the fibres and can also be due to the better dispersion of fibres and the interaction of resin

because the shorter the fibre, the better the properties. Impact strength also increases as the fibre

loading increases also due to proper fibre dispersion. Hardness of both the treated and untreated

fibre increase as thefibre loading increases and this is due to the stiffness of the fibre in the

matrix. The fibrehave direct effect on density as it add weight to the fibre which varies with

different fibre loading. The result obtained after 30days period showed increase in percentage of

water absorption with increase in fibre loading.

59
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

To achieve better results, it is suggested that:

1. Other composite mould techniques instead of the hand-laying method should be

used in the production of these composites.

2. Further research should be carried out using different length of the CHF so as to

determine the effect of length variation when mix with the matrix which will

further help to obtain a better results.

3. The determination of the physical, chemical parameters of the composite material

alone is not enough to promote its use. Further investigations such as compression

test, abrasion test should be carried out to improve the composite.

4. The behavioural pattern of the composite composition most especially the

fibre/filler behaviour on the fracture surface of the composite should be studied

with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).

60
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63
 APPENDIX

Table4.1: Parameters for tensile strength test of treated and untreated cow hair fibre
composite
S/N Filler loading Tensile Strength

(%) UTS (N/mm2) of UTS (N/mm2) of untreated

treated cow hair (Mpa) cow hair (Mpa)

1 0(control) 54.59 54.59

2 5 44.04 44.56

3 10 46.91 45.24

4 15 47.89 41.46

5 20 46.52 46.04

6 25 48.32 38.72

Table4.2: Parameters for elongation at break of treated and untreated cow hair fibre
composite
S/N Filler loading Elongation at break (%)
Treated cow hair Treated cow hair
(%)
1 0(control) 46.30 46.30

2 5 43.32 39.12

3 10 40.20 40.32

4 15 39.90 41.21

5 20 38.46 38.63

6 25 38.13 36.62

64
Table4.3: Parameters for tensile modulus of treated and untreated cow hair fibre
composite
S/N Filler loading Tensile modulus (Mpa)
Treated cow hair Untreated cow hair
(%)
1 0 (control) 271.06 271.06

2 0 202.91 207.15

3 5 251.08 207.15

4 10 204.08 231.31

5 15 233.11 252.66

6 20 261.28 269.92

Table4.4: Parameters for flexural test of treated and untreated cow hair fibre composite
S/N Filler loading Flexuralstrenght test
Treated cow hair Untreated cow hair
(%)
1 0(control) 67.40 67.40

2 5 38.15 35.13
3 10 33.64 33.56

4 15 31.57 31.42
5 20 38.15 37.42

6 25 41.37 41.20

65
Table 4.5: Parameters for flexural modulus of treated and untreated cow hair fibre
composite
S/N Filler loading Flexural modulus
Treated cow hair Untreated cow hair
(%)
1 0 (Control) 325.13 325.13
2 5 313.67 311.76
3 10 319.20 321.41

4 15 222.91 272.33
5 20 300.77 297.17

6 25 255.12 221.41

Table4.6: Parameters of impact test for treated and untreated cow hair fibre composite
S/N Filler loading Flexural test
Treated cow hair Untreated cow hair
(%)
1 0(control) 97 97

2 5 93.67 88.33
3 10 94 94.3

4 15 92.67 94
5 20 95.33 93.3

6 25 94.67 91.67

66
Table 4.7: Parameters for hardness test for treated and untreated cow hair fibre composite
S/N Filler loading Hardness test
Treated cow hair Untreated cow hair
(%)
1 0(control) 60.40 60.40

2 5 38.62 36.76
3 10 35.41 32.41

4 15 29.30 27.33
5 20 27.74 23.17

6 25 25.88 22.41

Table4.8: Parameters for hardness test for treated and untreated cow hair fibre composite
S/N Filler loading Density
Treated cow hair Untreated cow hair
(%)
1 0(control) 2.62 2.62

2 5 1.17 1.97
3 10 1.97 2.57

4 15 2.08 1.92
5 20 2.34 2.18

6 25 2.55 2.69

67
 Table 4.9: Percentage (%) water absorption test results for treated cow hair
No of days 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

Water Absorption (%)

Filler

Loading
0% 0 0 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.17
10% 0 0.28 0.56 0.83 0.83 1.10 1.10 1.38 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.94 1.94 1.94 2.21 2.21
20% 0 0.27 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.83 0.83 1.11 1.11 1.39 1.39 1.67 1.67 1.67 2.23 2.23
30% 0 0 0.28 0.56 0.56 0.84 0.84 1.12 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.68 1.68 1.96 1.96
40% 0 0 0 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.57 0.57 0.85 0.85 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.42 1.42 1.42
50% 0 0.59 0.87 1.48 1.48 1.48 1.48 1.76 1.76 2.04 2.04 2.32 2.32 2.32 2.60 2.60

Table 4.10: Percentage (%) water absorption test results for untreated cow hair
No of days 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

Water Absorption (%)

Filler

Loading
0% 0 0 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.17

10% 0 0 0.33 0.66 0.66 0.94 0.94 0.94 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.78 1.78

20% 0 0.29 0.57 1.16 1.16 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.72 1.72 1.72 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.28 2.28

30% 0 0.60 0.88 1.17 1.17 1.45 1.45 1.73 1.73 1.73 1.73 2.01 2.01 2.01 2.29 2.29

40% 0 0.52 0.80 0.80 1.06 1.34 1.34 1.34 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.90 1.90 1.90 2.18 2.18

50% 0 0.86 1.14 1.42 1.42 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.98 1.98 1.98 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.54 2.54

68