This is derived from a paper presented to Dr. D. Carlson Confucianism class at UTS.

Different cultural experiences have all produced conceptions of self. This fact alone points to the
human quest to understand what exactly it is that we are. Each of the conceptions of self thus
produced can be seen not as simply different, but as different perspectives of the same reality.
Since the human self is by many understood to be more than flesh and electrical impulses,
perhaps the diversity of such conceptions also points less to ignorance than to the complexity of
the human being.

But underlying the title of this paper is a fundamental and important philosophical question,
which for some often takes the misleading form: "Who am I?" The question does not so much
aim at a request for a species, or at an answer that provides information about material realities.
After all, the answer "a human being", or "a living entity", is very unsatisfying. The question can
mean: ‘What am I to do?’ in a time of crisis; or it can bring into question my personal
environment, in which I used to exist and which now may have come into question, such as in
times of war. In such instances, I am not concerned so much with what I am, literally, but with
what I should be. Such a deep soul searching might bring to mind existential "Angst".

In western thought the "problem of self’ might be traced back to Descartes (identity as a thinking
substance) and Locke (identity as bound up with memory). These two philosophers together
produced on the subject no more than 10 pages, while "contemporary elaboration of their theses
fill department libraries". But in the final analysis it may be said that those philosophers were
concerned only with a defense of the notion of reason. In any case, there are deeply held
convictions of the nature of self that are very different from those we ‘enlightened’ people hold.
In some societies the self or one’s identity has little or nothing to do with introspection, but
instead is determined by one’s place in the larger context, such as family and society. Next to
such different framework, western thinking of self seems self-oriented. But Ames, a well known
writer on Confucian thought, writes:

"It is often said that the western conception of self is "individualistic", perhaps excessively so.
But insofar as this refers to the obvious, namely the physical discernibly of individual human
beings and some rudimentary awareness that "I feel this and you don’t" (and vice versa), it is
hard to understand what all the fuzz is about. How could people not be individualistic?"

The Maori of New Zealand, for example, have just a firm grasp of their individuality as any
westerner. But their understanding of any action of any individual member is almost completely
embedded in one’s collective community. Any individual offense is felt by the whole community
of which both the offender and the offended are a part, and the action can not be separated from
that context.

Self or No-Self

The notion of self in Confucian thought is very similar to what Ames expresses in above quote,
and to the understanding of self in our examples of the Maori. Although it is by westerners often
understood that there is no self in Confucian thought, (because in Confucianism one does talk of
the concept of "no-self") this concept may be misunderstood when taken into western paradigms
of thinking.

But what is really meant by the idea of "no self", is this: "If one had no selfish motives, but only
the supreme virtues, there would be no self. … If he serves selflessly, he does not know what
service is [does not recognize it as service]. If he knows what service is, he has a self… [to think]
only of parents but not of yourself… is what I call no self." (Zoku Kyuo dowa [Kyuo’s Moral
discourses continued], 1835)

Hiroshi Minami, another writer on Confucian thought, notes that "[the concept of no-self] …is
identical with the spirit of service-above-self, where every spontaneous impulse is rejected as
selfishness"

In Confucianism the quest for the human self, the search for what it is to be human in terms of
substance or no-substance, in terms of spirit or body, does not exist. The form which that
question takes in Confucius’ writings, is one of personality. Personality as such is not seen as
inherently existing, but as something that is being formed through upbringing and environment.
In that, the human being is seen as a social being. (Some have even used the term: Social
animal). Accordingly, every person is born with four beginnings, which do not encapsulate a
concept of self as yet, but which together, if put in the western framework of thinking, may be
called ‘pre-self’, or ‘potential-self’:

• heart of compassion – leads to Jen

• heart of righteousness – leads to Yi

• heart of propriety – leads to Li

• heart of wisdom – leads to Chih

In this, Jen, Yi, Li and Chih, are the perfection of the virtues that exist in the human heart from
the beginning as potentials. A self as such would develop out of these, and develop through
practice of the corresponding virtues. Personality, in the Confucian perception, is an achieved
state of moral excellence rather than a given human condition. However, such achieved
personality, or self, is not to be understood as primarily an individual entity, as would be the
tendency in western thinking. As with the Maori, the Confucian concept of self also is deeply
embedded within the family and society, and it is only in that context that the self comes to be
what it is.

In Confucianism, we find that most of its writings are dealing with this process, namely, to
develop the potential into actuality, and if one may speculate on reasons for such an
understanding, one has to bear in mind the background amidst which these ideas originated.

Self as a Potential for Selfishness

China, during the 6th century, had been for some time and was then in great political and moral
turmoil, and Confucius’ writings must be understood as arising within such circumstances.
Confucius, therefore, was not concerned with metaphysical speculation on good and evil, or with
fates of the beyond, or with the nature of the human being "in itself". He was concerned
primarily with human happiness in the here and now. According to his own testimony, he grew
up "without rank and in humble circumstances", which helped him develop a deep concern for
the common people. Of aristocrats, he had a very poor opinion. "It is difficult to expect anything
from men who stuff themselves with food the whole day, while never using their minds in any
way at all. Even Gamblers do something, and to that degree are better than these idlers."
Confucius was concerned with conviction, not with rank or titles. With his ideas, he was of
course at variance with those held by the nobility. Until then, the word chun tzu referred to a man
of good birth. "Such a person was a Gentleman by birth, and no one not born so could become a
Gentleman, and no gentleman could ever become less than one, no matter how vile his conduct
might be." For Confucius, in contrast, any man was a "gentleman" if his conduct were noble and
unselfish. It may have been Confucius’ negative experiences of the nobility, and the rigidity of
understanding which clearly divided them from workers, which led to the Confucian
understanding of the self as something that has to be developed, rather than something that is
inherently given.

However, the matter of developing such a human being into a virtuous person, was not as clear
an issue as might seem. Great discussions and arguments were centered on just how one becomes
such a person.

For example, in reaction to Ogyo Sorai, the Confucian scholar Ishida Baigan founded the
shingaku (mind-discipline) movement. Sorai had challenged the idea of mind discipline as self-
contradictory, because "The mind is without form. It cannot be controlled by itself…" Baigan
disagreed, and founded his school. For others, such as Kumazawa Banzan, the training ground
for the self was external, but must be found in the public life, rather than in any school.

Another argument that emerged was that of selfishness. Does Bushido, the way of the warrior
formed by the Confucian values of loyalty and submission to one’s Lord, actually killed a sense
of individual self? On one hand, Inatomi Eijiro for example blames the lack of a clear sense of
individual self among the Japanese on the long-reigning feudal system. In that tradition,
"Whenever one is taken into service to a Lord, he should serve the Lord without any
consideration of his own self. Even if one … is ordered to commit harakiri, one should accept it."
In such a framework, there of course exists a self, but only an egoistic (ga) one. On the other
hand, some would argue that "the samurai obviously exhibited the kind of self-respect, self
assertion, and independence that formed the core of modern individualism. The matter does not
seem decided even in modern times.

The Confucian sense of self is, as indicated, very different from that of western understanding of
the same issue. An interesting conversation, in which these two frameworks met each other, took
place in 1957 between Hisamatsu Shinichi, a well known Zen Teacher, and Paul Tillich, the
western theologian:
Hisamatsu: The self is the true Formless Self only when it awakens to itself… it is always at
once "one’s own" and "not one’s own" … the Formless Self includes, in so far as it is Self, Self--
awareness. But by this formless Self (or Self-awareness) I mean the "Formless-Myself", which
… expresses—or presents—Itself in its activities… The True Awakening—or Formless Self—in
Itself has neither a beginning, an ending, a special place, nor a special time.

Tillich: Then it cannot happen to a human being.

Hisamatsu: … with this Self-awakening… one is no longer an "ordinary" human being.

Tillich (later): Even so, you can’t eliminate the "my" … Is it that there is no centered self, no
self-related self, which would be a hindrance?

DeMartino (Translator for Hisamatsu): The barrier is created by the reflectively self-conscious
ego—or "I"— which discriminates itself from "not-itself"--or "not-I". Muge ‘no hindrance’ [is]
the overcoming of this barrier…

Tillich: By the removal of individuality?

DeMartino: No, by the fulfillment of individuality.

Tillich: What is the difference…?

At the end, Hisamatsu’s translator intimates that the conversation reached an impasse because
the theologian is pursuing an analytic approach, while the Zen teacher is attempting to express
something ungraspable by this approach.

Interpretation

In our task of making explicit the Confucian concept of Self, we then must, it seems, shed the
western conception of the same, and see the issue under a different paradigm. As indicated
above, the issue here is no longer one of finding an inherent essence, but one of finding an
understanding for true becoming. But the human condition at birth in Confucianism is not to be
confused with that of being a tabula rasa, upon which our experiences write what will become
our personality. The human nature already seems predisposed toward the becoming of Jen, in
that we begin with a heart that is already aimed at it by its nature. The same holds true for the
other three virtues Yi, Li, and Chih. The human adult self, in Confucianism, has above been
defined as an ‘achieved state of moral excellence rather than a given human condition’, and there
are several implications to such an understanding. First, strictly speaking, one may speak of a
human being in Confucianism only as such with regard to the human potential to become an
human being. In other words, at birth, being human is no different from being an animal. The
true human condition is achieved in life, if indeed it is being achieved, through the practice of the
virtues. While these virtues are almost impossible to be achieved in anyone’s lifetime, being
human refers to making the effort of achieving them. To be on the way, to follow the Tao toward
perfection, is the as close to perfection one is likely to come. In this, the concept of ‘self’ in
Confucianism is closely linked with all those areas that the virtues stand for. To become a person
of Jen, one aims to become a person of love. On the exact meaning of Jen extensive writing has
been done, to bring this Confucian concept closer to the western mind by relating it to the
western concept of "Agape". A person of Jen is a compassionate human being, for whom rules
and regulations are a means to an end, and not an end in itself. But such a person does not act
arbitrarily. The "superior" person also follows the virtue of Yi, which relates to righteousness.
Further, he follows the rules and laws of the nation he lives in, and respects its customs. In that,
he follows the virtue of Li. Finally, a true human being has developed his heart of wisdom. That
is, he follows Chih, which refers to a wisdom that has been developed through living a life
according to the other virtues. In fact, although we may speak of the four virtues, this is a
distinction only for practical purposes of intellectual understanding. For the true man, those four
virtues are interrelated, and are impossible without any one of them. In this, they are one.

In Confucianism then, the self can never be static. If one stops to develop the virtues in one’s
living, one has already lost them all. To be human means to develop and to keep pursuing the
virtues. In the sage, this has ceased to be a conscious effort or decision. The dynamic has been
integrated into the nature of the self, and has become the self. It has become an unconscious way
of being.

Summary

In our attempt to make explicit a concept of self in Confucian understanding, we have first
shown how our western understanding of the issue differs from that of other cultures. We have
hinted that the commonly understood selfishness inherent in western understanding may in fact
be no different from that of other cultures, including understandings of the Chinese and the
Japanese. Following, we tried to clarify somewhat a possible misunderstanding of the concept of
"no-Self" in Confucianism, and went from there to explain the Confucian concept of self as a
social construct. This construct does not exist at birth, but is being developed to the degree by
which one lives according to the five Confucian virtues. We have briefly shown that the issue of
self in Confucianism takes the form of understanding how one is to achieve these virtues, and
have hinted at some of the discussion that is going on in that regard. Further, a dialogue between
Tillich and Hisamatsu showed the differences of approach. Finally, in what must be our own
interpretation, we have tried to define the Confucian self as a dynamic that aims at the perfection
of the virtues.

The concept of self in Confucianism is a topic that is relatively undeveloped. Whether this is
because of difficulties in approach, complexity of the issue itself, or because of the still existing
gap between western and eastern philosophical thinking; it seem to us that the question of "who
am I" is an important one. This short paper does not even begin to deal with the issues involved.

But, in our humble opinion, the "superior man" would learn from anything.
According to Confucians, spiritual development comes after physical, emotional, and
mental development. One must first learn to know oneself and to respect and honor
oneself as one goes about daily business. As Confucius said, "If you don't know how
to live as a person, how can you serve the spirit?" (Confucian Analects, Confucius
1971 [500 B.C.E.]). Confucius avoided talking about extraordinary things, feats of
strength (violence), disorder, and religious gods (Confucian Analects, Confucius 1971
[500 B.C.E.]). Confucianism stresses being spiritual, but not religious.
Concept of Jen as loving relationship. Jen is a proper relationship between two parties, a loving and
caring relationship to reach humanity. Meditation is considered a cornerstone to search for self, find
truth, and achieve individual and collective goals.

Concept of harmony. A central feature of Confucianism is harmony between people and their
environment, Nature, or Tao. The Tao Chi (Yin-Yang diagram) is an example of the value of harmony
with the environment. It is also applied to the concept of health for energy (qi/chi), balance for disease
prevention, healing, and the development of human potential. Meditation is a way of managing energy
that is applied to reach physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual harmony for individual holistic health.

This core value of Confucianism has had positive and negative effects on Chinese history; it became
quite detrimental to women and children. Contemporary Confucians prescribe family conflict resolution
to remedy this. The younger generations are not allowed to express their opinions before their elders.
According to social standards, women and children who were abused are still expected to be submissive.
Social workers and helping professionals must understand the hidden cultural dynamics to deal with the
root philosophies and beliefs as they try to help people.

Family conflict resolution. Based on the Yin Yang theory from the Tai Chi diagram, contemporary
Confucians such as Douglas K. Chung (1993a) prescribe the family conflict resolution model. It is an
example of innovation of Confucianism in redefining the image of Tao through daily practice. In the
model, any systems' solutions to conflict resolutions and goals for development aim to integrate love
( Jen), justice, freedom, and fidelity (the image of Tao) in the dynamics. The approach aims to fulfill
human needs (love). Justice is seen by the end of the cycle under perfectly equal treatment. Freedom is
practiced by volunteer choice and participation in negotiation and compromise—the flexibility of mean
line and possibility of forming new systems. Faithfulness is reached by the stability, repeatability, and
accountability of leadership and/or revealed by the natural laws. Role equity and role change, therefore,
are the core implication of the Yin-Yang Theory.