Module 1

,QWURGXFWLRQWRCalculus

I. ,QWURGXFWLRQWR&DOFXOXV f (3) = 4(3)2 − 3(3) + 2

= 36 − 9 + 2 = 29
Calculus is a branch of mathematics involving or lead-
ing to calculations dealing with continuously varying f (−1) = 4(−1)2 − 3(−1) + 2
functions. = 4+3+2 = 9
Calculus is a subject that falls into two parts:
f (3) − f (−1) = 29 − 9 = 20
(i) differential calculus (or differentiation) and
(ii) integral calculus (or integration).
Problem2.Giventhatf(x)
=
5x2+
x−7determine:
Differentiation is used in calculations involving veloc-
ity and acceleration, rates of change and maximum and (i) f (2) ÷ f (1) (iii) f (3 + a) − f (3)
minimum values of curves. f (3 + a) − f (3)
(ii) f (3 + a) (iv)
a
A. )XQFWLRQDO1RWDWLRQ

In an equation such as y = 3x 2 + 2x − 5, y is said to be f (x) = 5x 2 + x − 7

a function of x and may be written as y = f (x).
(i) f (2) = 5(2)2 + 2 − 7 = 15
An equation written in the form f (x) = 3x 2 + 2x − 5
is termed functional notation. The value of f (x) when f (1) = 5(1)2 + 1 −7 = −1
x = 0 is denoted by f (0), and the value of f (x) when
15
x = 2 is denoted by f (2) and so on. Thus when f (x) = f (2) ÷ f (1) = = −15
3x 2 + 2x − 5, then −1
(ii) f (3 + a) = 5(3 + a)2 + (3 + a) − 7
f (0) = 3(0)2 + 2(0) − 5 = −5
= 5(9 + 6a + a 2 ) + (3 +a) − 7
and f (2) = 3(2)2 + 2(2) − 5 = 11 and so on.
= 45 +30a + 5a 2 + 3 + a − 7
Problem1.Iff(x)
=
4x2−3x+2find: = 41 + 31a + 5a2
f (0), f (3), f (−1) and f (3) − f (−1)
(iii) f (3) = 5(3)2 + 3 −7 = 41
f (x) = 4x 2 − 3x + 2 f (3 + a) − f (3) = (41 +31a + 5a 2 ) − (41)
f(0)
=
4(0)2−
3(0)
+
2=
2 = 31a + 5a2
 f (3 + a) − f (3) 31a + 5a 2 The gradient of the chord AB
(iv) = = 31 + 5a
a a
BC BD − CD
= =
AC ED
f (x 2 ) − f (x1 )
=
(x 2 − x 1 )

([HUFLVH)XQFWLRQDO1RWDWLRQ
f(x)

A
C f(x2)

f(x1)
E D
0 x1 x2 x

Figure2

f(x)
10
B f(x) 5 x 2
8

B. The gradient of a curve 4 C

2 D
(a) If a tangent is drawn at a point P on a curve, then the A
gradient of this tangent is said to be the
0 1 1.5 2 3 x
gradientofthecurveat P.InFig.1,thegradient
ofthecurve at P is equal to the gradient of the Figure3
tangentPQ.

f (x) (c) Forthecurve f(x)
=
x2 showninFig.3:

(i) the gradient of chord AB
Q
f (3) − f (1) 9 − 1
= = =4
3−1 2
P
(ii) the gradient of chord AC
0 x f (2) − f (1) 4 − 1
Figure1
= = =3
2−1 1

(b) For the curve shown in Fig. 2, let the points (iii) the gradient of chord AD
A and B have co-ordinates (x 1 , y1 ) and (x 2 , y2 ),
respectively. In functional notation, y1 = f (x 1 ) f (1.5) − f (1) 2.25 − 1
= = = 2.5
and y2 = f (x 2 ) as shown. 1.5 − 1 0.5
 (iv) if E is the point on the curve (1.1, f (1.1)) y
then the gradient of chord AE
f (1.1) − f (1) B (x 1 !x, y 1 !y)
=
1.1 − 1
1.21 − 1 !y
= = 2.1 A(x, y)
0.1 f(x 1 !x)
(v) if F is the point on the curve (1.01, f (1.01)) f(x) !x
then the gradient of chord AF
0 x
f (1.01) − f (1)
= Figure4
1.01 − 1
1.0201 − 1 δy
= = 2.01 As δx approaches zero, approaches a limiting
0.01 δx
value and the gradient of the chord approaches the
Thus as point B moves closer and closer to point A the gradient of the tangent at A.
gradient of the chord approaches nearer and nearer to the
value 2. This is called the limiting value of the gradient (ii) When determining the gradient of a tangent to a
of the chord AB and when B coincides with A the chord curvetherearetwonotationsused.Thegradientof
becomes the tangent to the curve. thecurveatAinFig.4caneitherbewrittenas:

f (x + δx) − f (x)
"
δy
limit or limit
δx→0 δx δx→0 δx

([HUFLVH*UDGLHQWRID&XUYH
dy δy
InLeibniznotation,
dx =
limit
δx→0 δx
Infunctionalnotation,
"
f′(x)=
limit f(x+δx)−f(x)
δx→0 δx

dy
(iii) isthesameasf′(x)
andiscalledthediffer-
dx
ential coefficient or the derivative. The process
C, 'LIIHUHQWLDWLRQIURP¿UVWSULQFLSOHV of finding the differential coefficient is called
differentiation.
Summari]ing,thedifferentialcoefficient,
(i) InFig.4, A and B are twopointsveryclose
together on a curve, δx (delta x) and δy (delta y) dy δy
′
representing small increments in the x and y dx =
f (x)=
limitδx
directions, respectively. δx→0 "
f(x+δx)−f(x)
δy =
limit δx
Gradient of chord AB = δx→0
δx
However, δy = f (x + δx) − f (x)
Problem3.Differentiatefromfirstprinciples
δy f (x +δx) − f (x) f (x) = x 2 and determine the value of the gradient
Hence = of the curve at x = 2
δx δx
To ‘differentiate from first principles’ means ‘to find f (x + δx) = 8. Hence
f ′ (x)’ by using the expression
f (x + δx) − f (x) dy f (x + δx) − f (x)
" "
f (x) = limit
′
= f ′ (x) = limit
δx→0 δx dx δx→0 δx
f (x) = x 2 8−8
"
= limit =0
Substituting (x + δx) for x gives δx→0 δx
f (x + δx) = (x + δx)2 = x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 , hence
(x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 ) − (x 2 )
" dy
f (x) = limit
′ Thus, when y = 8, =0
δx→0 δx dx
The equation y = 8 represents a straight horizontal line
2xδx + δx 2
"
= limit = limit {2x + δx} and the gradient of a horizontal line is zero, hence the
δx→0 δx δx→0 result could have been determined by inspection. ‘Find-
As δx → 0, [2x + δx] → [2x + 0]. Thus f ′ (x) = 2x, i.e. ing the derivative’ means ‘finding the gradient’, hence,
the differential coefficient of x 2 is 2x. At x = 2, the in general, for any horizontal line if y = k (where k is a
dy
gradient of the curve, f ′ (x) = 2(2) = 4 constant) then = 0.
dx
Problem4.Findthedifferentialcoefficientof
y = 5x Problem6.Differentiatefromfirstprinciples
f (x) = 2x 3
dy
By definition, = f ′ (x)
dx
f (x + δx) − f (x)
" Substituting (x + δx) for x gives
= limit
δx→0 δx
f (x + δx) = 2(x + δx)3
The function being differentiated is y = f (x) = 5x.
Substituting (x + δx) for x gives: = 2(x + δx)(x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 )
f (x + δx) = 5(x + δx) = 5x + 5δx. Hence = 2(x 3 + 3x 2 δx + 3xδx 2 + δx 3 )
dy
"
(5x + 5δx) − (5x)
= f (x) = limit
′
= 2x 3 + 6x 2 δx + 6xδx 2 + 2δx 3
dx δx→0 δx
"
5δx
= lim it = limit{5} dy f (x + δx) − f (x)
"
δx→0 δx δx→0
= f ′ (x) = limit
dx δx→0 δx
Since the term δx does not appear in [5] the limiting
dy (2x 3 + 6x 2 δx + 6xδx 2 + 2δx 3 ) − (2x 3 )
"
value as δx → 0 of [5] is 5. Thus = 5, i.e. the dif- = limit
dx δx→0 δx
ferentialcoefficientof5xis5.Theequationy=
5x
6x 2 δx + 6xδx 2 + 2δx 3
"
representsastraightlineofgradient5
= limit
dy δx→0 δx
The ‘differential coefficient’ (i.e. or f ′ (x)) means
dx
‘the gradient of the curve’, and since the slope of the = limit {6x 2 + 6xδx + 2δx 2 }
δx→0
line y = 5x is 5 this result can be obtained by inspec-
tion. Hence, in general, if y = kx (where k is a constant),
dy Hence f ′ (x) = 6x2 , i.e. the differential coefficient of 2x 3
then the gradient of the line is k and or f ′ (x) = k. is 6x 2 .
dx
Problem5. Findthederivativeofy=
8
Problem7.Findthedifferentialcoefficientofy=

4x2+5x−3anddeterminethegradientofthe
y = f (x) = 8. Since there are no x-values in the orig-
curveatx= −3
inal equation, substituting (x + δx) for x still gives
 y = f (x) = 4x 2 + 5x − 3 D. 'LIIHUHQWLDWLRQRI\ D[QE\WKH
f (x + δx) = 4(x + δx)2 + 5(x + δx) − 3 JHQHUDOUXOH
= 4(x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 ) + 5x + 5δx − 3 From differentiation by first principles, a general rule
2 2
= 4x + 8xδx + 4δx + 5x + 5δx − 3 for differentiating axn emerges where a and n are any
constants. This rule is:
dy f (x + δx) − f (x)
"
= f ′ (x) = limit
dx δx→0 δx dy n–1
ify=axn then dx =anx
(4x + 8xδx + 4δx 2 + 5x + 5δx − 3)
2
 
or,iff(x)=
axnthenf′(x)=
anxn–1
 
− (4x 2 + 5x − 3)

 

= limit
δx→0   δx 
 (Each of the results obtained in worked problems 3 to 7
 
may be deduced by using this general rule.)
8xδx + 4δx 2 + 5δx
"
When differentiating, results can be expressed in a
= limit
δx→0 δx number of ways.

= limit {8x + 4δx + 5} For example:

δx→0
dy
(i) if y = 3x 2 then = 6x,
i.e.
dy
= f ′ (x) = 8x + 5 dx
dx (ii) if f (x) = 3x 2 then f ′ (x) = 6x,
At x = −3, the gradient of the curve (iii) the differential coefficient of 3x 2 is 6x,
dy
= = f ′ (x) = 8(−3) + 5 = −19 (iv) the derivative of 3x 2 is 6x, and
dx
d
(v) (3x 2 ) = 6x
Differentiation from first principles can be a lengthy dx
process and it would not be convenient to go through this
procedure every time we want to differentiate a function. Problem8. Usingthegeneralrule,differentiate
In reality we do not have to, because a set of general thefollowingwithrespecttox:
√ 4
rules have evolved from the above procedure, which we (a) y = 5x 7 (b) y = 3 x (c) y = 2
consider in the following section. x

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(a) Comparing y = 5x 7 with y = ax n shows that 3 5
= 5t 0 − t − 2
a = 5 and n = 7. Using the general rule, 2
dy
= anx n−1 = (5)(7)x 7−1 = 35x6 3 3
dx i.e. f ′ (t) = 5 − 5 = 5 − √
2t 2 2 t5
√ 1 1
(b) y = 3 x = 3x 2 . Hence a = 3 and n =
2
x + 2)2
Problem11. Differentiatey=
with
dy 1 1 x
= anx n−1 = (3) x 2 −1 respecttox
dx 2
3 1 3 3 (x + 2)2 x 2 + 4x + 4
= x− 2 = 1
= √ y= =
2 2 x x x
2x 2
x 2 4x 4
4 = + +
(c) y= = 4x −2 . Hence a = 4 and n = −2 x x x
x2
i.e. y = x + 4 + 4x –1
dy
= anx n−1 = (4)(−2)x −2−1 dy
dx Hence = 1 + 0 + (4)(−1)x −1−1
dx
8
= −8x −3 = − 3 4
x = 1 − 4x −2 = 1 − 2
x

Problem9.Findthedifferentialcoefficientof
2 4 √
y = x3 − 3 + 4 x5 + 7
5 x
([HUFLVH'LIIHUHQWLDWLRQRI\ D[QE\WKH
JHQHUDOUXOH
2 3 4 *
y= x − 3 + 4 x5 + 7
5 x
2
i.e. y = x 3 − 4x −3 + 4x 5/2 + 7
5
dy
 +
2
= (3)x 3−1 − (4)(−3)x −3−1
dx 5
 +
5 (5/2)−1
+ (4) x +0
2
6
= x 2 + 12x −4 + 10x 3/2
5
dy 6 2 12 *
i.e. = x + 4 + 10 x3
dx 5 x

1
Problem10. If f(t)
=
5t+ √ find f ′ (t )
t3

1 1 3
f (t ) = 5t + √ = 5t + 3 = 5t 1 + t − 2
t3 t2
 +
3 − 3 −1
Hence f ′ (t ) = (5)(1)t 1−1 + − t 2
2
 E. 'LIIHUHQWLDWLRQRIVLQHDQGFRVLQH
IXQFWLRQV
Figure5(a)showsagraphofy=
sinθ.Thegradientis y
continuallychangingasthecurvemovesfromOto
dy y 5 cos "
A to B to C to D. The gradient, given by , may be
dθ !
plottedinacorrespondingpositionbelowy=
sinθ, a s
(a)
showninFig.5(b). 0 # # 3# 2# " radians
2 2
2
y

A
y 5 sin "
1 dy
!
d"
B D
(a) (b)
0 # # 3# 2# " radians
0 π π 3π 2π " radians
2 2
2 2 2
d
(cos ") 5 2sin "
d"
C
09 D9
d Figure6
(sin ") 5 cos "
dy d"
1
dx
(b)
A9 C9 (iii) Between A and B the gradient is negative but is
0 π π 3π 2π " radians increasing in value until at B the gradient is at its
2 2 steepest. Hence B ′ is a maximum negative value.
(iv) If the gradient of y = sin θ is further investigated
B9 between B and C and C and D then the resulting
dy
graph of is seen to be a cosine wave.
Figure5 dθ
Hence the rate of change of sin θ is cos θ, i.e.
(i) At 0, the gradient is positive and is at its steepest.
dy
Hence 0′ is the maximum positive value. if y=sinθ
then
dθ =cosθ
(ii) Between 0 and A the gradient is positive but is
decreasing in value until at A the gradient is zero, Itmayalsobeshownthat:
shown as A′ . dy
if y=sinaθ
,
dθ =acosaθ
(whereaisaconstant)
dy
andif y=sin(aθ
+α), dθ =acos(aθ
+α)
(whereaandα
areconstants).

Ifasimilarexerciseisfollowedfory=
cosθ
thenthe
dy
graphsofFig.6result,showing to be a graph of
dθ
sinθ,butdisplacedbyπ
radians.Ifeachpointonthe
curvey=
sinθ
(asshowninFig.5(a))weretobe
π π 3π
made negative, (i.e. + is made − , − is made
2 2 2
3π
+
2 ,andsoon)thenthegraphshowninFig.6(b)
would result. This latter graph therefore represents the
curve of –sin θ.
dy
Thus,ify=cosθ,
dθ = − sinθ
Itmayalsobeshownthat: dv
dy = (100)(200) cos 200t = 20 000 cos200t
if = − asinaθ dt
y=cosaθ
,
dθ
(whereaisaconstant) (a) When t = 0.005 s,
dv
dy = 20 000 cos(200)(0.005) = 20 000 cos1
andif y=cos(aθ
+α), dt
dθ = − asin(aθ
+α)
cos 1 means ‘the cosine of 1 radian’ (make sure
(whereaandα
areconstants).
your calculator is on radians — not degrees).
dv
Problem12.Differentiatethefollowingwith Hence = 10 806 volts per second
dt
respecttothevariable:(a)y=
2 sin 5θ
(b) f (t ) = 3 cos2t (b) When t = 0.01 s,
dv
(a) y = 2 sin 5θ dt
= 20 000 cos(200)(0.01) = 20 000 cos2.
dy dv
= (2)(5) cos 5θ = 10 cos 5θ Hence = −8323 volts per second
dθ dt
(b) f (t ) = 3 cos2t
f ′ (t ) = (3)(−2) sin 2t = −6 sin 2t

Problem13.Findthedifferentialcoefficientof
([HUFLVH'LIIHUHQWLDWLRQRIVLQHDQG
y = 7 sin 2x − 3 cos4x
FRVLQHIXQFWLRQV
y = 7 sin 2x − 3 cos 4x
dy
= (7)(2) cos 2x − (3)(−4) sin 4x
dx
= 14 cos 2x + 12 sin 4x

Problem14. Differentiatethefollowing
withrespecttothevariable:
(a) f (θ) = 5 sin(100πθ − 0.40)
(b) f (t ) = 2 cos(5t + 0.20)

(a) If f (θ) = 5 sin(100πθ − 0.40)

f ′ (θ) = 5[100π cos(100πθ − 0.40)]
= 500π cos(100πθ − 0.40)
(b) If f (t ) = 2 cos(5t + 0.20)
f ′ (t) = 2[−5 sin(5t + 0.20)]
= −10 sin(5t + 0.20)

Problem15. Analternatingvoltageisgiven
by:v
=
100sin200tvolts,wheretisthetimein
seconds.Calculatetherateofchangeofvoltage
when(a)t=
0.005sand(b)t=
0.01s

v = 100 sin 200t volts. The rate of change of v is given

dv
by .
dt
 F. Differentiation
o f
eax
and
ln
ax
Agraphofy=
ex isshowninFig.7(a).Thegradient
dy
of the curve at any point is given by and is continu-
dx
ally changing. By drawing tangents to the curve at many
points on the curve and measuring the gradient of the

y y
20 2

15 1 y 5 In x
y 5 ex
10 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 x
21
5
22
23 22 21 0 1 2 3 x
(a) (a)
dy
dx 2
dy y
dx 20
1.5 dy 1
5
dx x
15 dy
5 ex 1.0
dx
10 0.5

5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
(b)
23 22 21 0 1 2 3 x
(b) Figure8

Figure7
It may also be shown that
dy
tangents, values of for corresponding values of x dy 1
dx ify=lnax,
then =
may be obtained. These values are shown graphically in dx x
dy
Fig. 7(b). The graph of against x is identical to (Note that in the latter expression ‘a’ does not appear in
dx dy
the original graph of y = e x . It follows that: the term).
dx
dy 1
Thus if y = ln 4x, then =
dy x dx x
ify=ex,
then dx =e
It may also be shown that Problem16. Differentiatethefollowing
dy withrespecttothevariable:(a)y=
3e2x
ify=eax,
then 4
dx =ae
ax
(b) f (t ) = 5t .
3e
dy
Therefore if y = 2e6x , then = (2)(6e6x ) = 12e6x
dx dy
A graph of y=
ln x is shown in Fig. 8(a). The (a) If y = 3e2x then = (3)(2e2x ) = 6e2x
dy dx
gradient of the curve at any point is given by and is
dx 4 4
continually changing. By drawing tangents to the curve (b) If f (t ) = 5t
= e−5t , then
3e 3
at many points on the curve and measuring the gradient
dy 4 20 20
of the tangents, values of for corresponding values of f ′ (t) = (−5e−5t ) = − e−5t = − 5t
dx 3 3 3e
x may be obtained. These values are shown graphically
dy
inFig.8(b).Thegraphof against x is the graph Problem17. Differentiatey=
5 l n 3 x.
dx
dy 1  +
of dy 1 5
=
If y = 5 ln 3x, then = (5) =
dx x dy 1 dx x x
Itfollowsthat:ify=
lnx,then =
dx x
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