Development communication

Development
i. Development is a process that creates growth, progress,
positive change or the addition of physical, economic,
environmental, social and demographic components. ...
ii. Meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs
iii. The ultimate aim of development is not or should not be to
create more wealth or achieve higher economic growth. It is or
should be to expand the range of choices for every human
being.
Communication
1. Transfer of information, such as thoughts and messages, as
contrasted with transportation, the transfer of goods and
persons.
2. The basic forms of communication are by signs (sight) and by
sounds, (hearing); see language).
3. It’s a two way process

SMCR MODEL
See Wilbur Schram model file

 Cultural Communication: is the work that people do to meet the

communication demand of their life worlds.
 Early use of cultural communication in Anthropology: A process
through which cultural difference is expressed and constructed.
 Schwartz (1980): Socialization is Cultural Communication (Book:
Studies in Symbolism and cultural communication)
 Says: Human grow up through a process of communication, and
become socialized into a particular cultured version of society.
 Margret Mead: (Article: Public opinion Mechanism Among
primitive people 1937)
Says: Cultural Communication has a mediating role in socializing
people into a particular cultural way.

Anthropologist Victor Turner (1980)

(Book: “Social Drama and Stories about them”)

 Developed idea of cultural function of communication

 He worked on communicative forms in cultural works of a
community and individuals; myth, ritual social drama.

He said: Community is a site for cultural works.

Development communication 
i. Development communication refers to the use
of communication to facilitate social development.
ii. development communication engages stakeholders and policy
makers, establishes conducive environments, assesses risks and
opportunities and promotes information exchanges to create
positive social change via sustainable development.
iii. Development communication techniques include information
dissemination and education, behavior change, social marketing,
social mobilization, media advocacy, communication for social
change, and community participation.
iv. Development communication has been labeled as the "Fifth
Theory of the Press", with "social transformation and
development", and "the fulfillment of basic needs" as its
 primary purposes. Jamias(( Jamias, J.F. Editor. 1975.
Readings in Development Communication. Laguna,
Philippines: Department of Development Communication,
College of Agriculture, UPLB).
v. articulated the philosophy of development communication which
is anchored on three main ideas. Their three main ideas are:
purposive, value-laden, and pragmatic.
Nora C. Quebral(Nora Cruz Quebral is a pioneer in the discipline of
development communication in Asia and is often referred to as the
"mother of development communication", giving birth to an academic
discipline and training many scholars in that field)
Books: Development Communication
vi. She expanded the definition, calling it "the art and science of
human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a
country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state
of economic growth that makes possible greater social equality
and the larger fulfillment of the human potential".
vii.  Melcote and Steeves saw it as "emancipation communication",
aimed at combating injustice and oppression.[6] The term
"development communication" is sometimes used to refer to a
type of marketing and public opinion research, but that is not the
topic of this acticle.
viii. Nora Cruz-Quebral accounted that the Development
Communication was first articulated on December 10, 1971 at the
University of the Philippines in Los Banos (UPLB). At that time,
the UPLB College of Agriculture held a symposium (in honor of
Dr. Dioscoro L. Umali, a national scientist in the area of plant
breeding) titled "In Search of Breakthroughs in Agricultural
Development"
ix. A recent and more encompassing definition of development
communication states that it is:
...the art and science of human communication linked to a society's
planned transformation from a state of poverty to one dynamic socio-
economic growth that makes for greater equality and the larger
unfolding of individual potentials.

Erskine Childers(Erskine B Childers( A UNITED NATIONS

CIVIL SERVANT, FORD FOUNDATION, DAG  Hammarskjöld 
i. FOUNDATION,) Defined it as:
Development support communications is a discipline in development
planning and implementation in which more adequate account is taken
of human behavioural factors in the design of development projects and
their objectives.
World Bank, the Development Communication is the "integration of
strategic communication in development projects" based on a clear
understanding of indigenous realities.[10]
UNICEF :
"...a two-way process for sharing ideas and knowledge using a range of
communication tools and approaches that empower individuals and
communities to take actions to improve their lives." The Thusong
government center described it as "providing communities with
information they can use in improving their lives, which aims at making
public programmes and policies real, meaningful and sustainable".[12]
Bessette (2006)
"planned and systematic application of communication resources,
channels, approaches and strategies to support the goals of socio-
economic, political and cultural development". Development
communication is essentially participatory, because, according to
Ascroft and Masilela (1994) "participation translates into individuals
being active in development programmes and processes; they contribute
ideas, take initiative and articulate their needs and their problems, while
asserting their autonomy."
Reading and discussion on Dr Rajesk Kumar article
Who are development communicators?
What qualities do they possess?
Nora C. Quebra gave a characterization:

1. They understand the process of development,

the process of communication, and the
environment in which the two processes
interact.
2. They are knowledgeable in communication
skills and techniques as well as proficient in
subject matter to be communicated.
3. They have internalized the values inherent in
equity and the unfolding of individual
potential.
4. They have firsthand knowledge of the several
kinds of end-users of development
communication.
5. They have a sense of commitment, the
acceptance of individual responsibility for
advancing human development.
Concepts
Felstehausen (1973)
“, conventional theoretical assumptions are drawn from development
communications research and are challenged on the grounds that as
theoretical concepts they are inadequate guides to the selection of data
and the resolution of development problems.
i. The first conceptual fallacy results from the regular practice of
choosing operational examples and analogies from the
experiences of developed rather than underdeveloped countries.
The first issue is argued by presenting a review of empirical
studies which show that communication processes and the
adoption of new technology does not go on apart from the
 factors which define the behavior of the social, economic and
political system
ii. The second fallacy results from the use of inappropriate and
frequently untested theoretical models within communication
research causing a distorted view of the role of communication
in relation to social and behavioral systems. The second issue is
addressed by suggesting that communication is to be viewed as
part of a social interaction theory in which communication is
treated as a process which unveils and transforms reality in the
exchange of information among persons.

History
The practice of development communication began in the 1940s, but
widespread application came about after World War II. The advent
of communication sciences in the 1950s included recognition of the field
as an academic discipline, led by Daniel Lerner, Wilbur
Schramm and Everett Rogers. Both Childers and Quebral stressed
that DC includes all means of communication, ranging from mass media
to person to person.
According to Quebral (1975), the most important feature of Philippines-
style development communications is that the government is the "chief
designer and administrator of the master (development) plan wherein,
development communication, in this system then is purposive,
persuasive, goal-directed, audience-oriented, and interventionist by
nature"

Academic schools
Manyozo (2006) broke the field into six schools.
i. The "Bretton Woods" school was originally dominant in
international literature.
ii. The others were the Latin American.
iii. Indian,
iv. African,
v. Los Baños and
 vi. participatory schools.
Catholic social change
While not per se an academic school, the Church has been conducting
"development communication" for many decades. The Catholic Church's
social teachings and moral norms parallel those of social development. 
The involvement of many organizations and individual members of the
Catholic Church in highlighting the plight of the needy and reaching out
to the disadvantaged through works in education, health, livelihood
projects, among others, serves as a concrete example of a Church that
communicates a transformative and life-changing message.[25]
Islamic school
Islamic charities

Bretton Woods
The Bretton Woods school of development communication paralleled
the economic strategies outlined in the Marshall Plan, the Bretton
Woods system and of the World Bank and the International Monetary
Fund in 1944. The little-used name served to differentiate the original
paradigm from other schools that evolved later. Leading theorists
included Daniel Lerner, Wilbur Schramm and Everett Rogers.
Due to his pioneering influence, Rogers
was referred to as
"one of the founding fathers of development
communication."
This approach to development communication was criticized by Latin
American researchers such as Luis Ramiro Beltan and Alfonso Gumucio
Dagron, because it emphasized problems in the developing nation rather
than its unequal relation with developed countries. They claimed that it
proposed industrial capitalism as a universal solution and that many
projects failed to address obstacles such as lack of access to land,
agricultural credits, and fair market prices. Failed projects in the 1960s
led to revisions. Manyozo found that the school had been the most
dynamic in testing and adopting new approaches and methodologies.
Institutions associated with the Bretton Woods school of development
communication include: United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Rockefeller
Foundation Department for International Development, United
Kingdom Ford Foundation

Latin America
The Latin American school of development communication predates the
Bretton Woods school, emerging in the 1940s with the efforts of
Colombia's Radio Sutatenza and Bolivia's Radios Mineras. They
pioneered participatory and educational approaches to empowering the
marginalised. In effect, they served as the earliest models
for participatory broadcasting efforts around the world.[citation needed]
In the 1960s Paolo Freire's theories of critical pedagogy and Miguel
Sabido's enter-educate method became important elements of the Latin
American development communication school.[31][32]
Other influential theorists include Juan Diaz Bordenave, Luis Ramiro
Beltran, and Alfonso Gumucio Dagron (Manyozo 2006, Manyozo,
2005).
In the 1990s, technological advances facilitated social change and
development: new media outlets emerged, cable TV reached more
regions, and the growth of local communication firms paralleled the
growth of major media corporations.[33]
India
Organized development communication in India began with rural radio
broadcasts in the 1940s. Broadcasts adopted indigenous languages to
reach larger audiences.
Organized efforts in India started with community development projects
in the 1950s. The government, guided by socialist ideals and politicians,
started many development programs. Field publicity was employed for
person-to-person communication. The radio played an important role in
reaching the masses because literacy was low. Educational institutions –
especially agricultural universities, through their extension networks –
and international organizations under the United Nations umbrella
experimented with development communication.[citation needed]
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) relied on close inter-
personal relations among communicators.]
Communication from the government was more generic and
unidirectional. So-called Public Information Campaigns were
government-sponsored public fairs in remote areas that presented
entertainment along with information on social and developmental
schemes. Villagers engaged in competitions to attract attendees. Public
and private organizations sponsored stalls in the main exhibition area.
Development agencies and service/goods providers also attended. Some
state governments employed this model.]
Community radio was used in rural India. NGOs and educational
institutions created local stations to broadcast information, advisories
and messages on development. Local participation was encouraged.
Community radio provided a platform for villagers to publicize local
issues, offering the potential to elicit action from local officials.
The widespread adoption of mobile telephony in India created new
channels for reaching the masses.[34]
Africa
The African school of development communication sprang from the
continent's post-colonial and communist movements in the late 1960s
and early 1970s. Anglophone Africa employed radio and theatre for
community education, adult literacy, health and agricultural education
(Kamlongera, 1983, Mlama, 1971).
In 1994, the FAO project "Communication for Development in Southern
Africa" was a pioneer in supporting and enhancing development projects
and programs through the use of participatory communication. The FAO
project, placed under SADC, developed an innovative methodology
known as Participatory Rural Communication Appraisal (PRCA), which
combined participatory tools and techniques with a strong
communication focus needed to enhance projects results and
sustainability. FAO and SADC published a handbook on PRCA that was
used in projects around the world.
The radio maintained a strong presence in research and practice into the
21st century. Radio was especially important in rural areas, as the work
of the non-governmental organization Farm Radio International and its
members across sub-Saharan Africa demonstrated. Knowledge exchange
between development partners such as agricultural scientists and farmers
were mediated through rural radio (Hambly Odame, 2003).
Philippines
Systematic study and practice began at the University of the Philippines
Los Baños in the 1970s, through the establishment of the Department of
Development Communication in the College of Agriculture,[35] which
offered undergraduate and master's degrees.
Quebral coined the term "development communication" while at the
university's Office of Extension and Publications, now the College of
Development Communication (CDC). According to Felix Librero, the
term was first used by Quebral in her 1971 paper, "Development
Communication in the Agricultural Context," presented in at a
symposium at the University of the Philippines Los Baños. In her paper,
Quebral argued that development communication had become a science,
requiring the tasks associated with communicating development-
oriented issues be based on scientific inquiry. At the time the field was
limited to agricultural and rural development.
At the time the term 'development support communication' was used
in UNDP programmes under Erskine Childers, with coauthor and wife,
Malicca Vajrathron.[citation needed] This area of research focused on the
functions of communication in promoting UN agricultural and
development programmes. Development communication at Los Baños
became an academic field rather than a techniques program.[38] Quebral
cited Seers's definition of development in arguing for the term, as
opposed to Childer's 'development support communication', which was
used in public and in the scientific literature for the first time. Librero
recounted that colleagues in agricultural communications in Los Baños
agreed with Quebral, but colleagues from the field of mass
communication in the University of the Philippines Diliman, and from
countries in North America, did not initially agree, although they
ultimately relented.]
In 1993, in the Institute of Development Communication's faculty papers
series, Alexander Flor proposed expanding the definition of
development communication to include the perspective
of cybernetics and general systems theory:
If information counters entropy and societal breakdown is a type of
entropy, then there must be a specific type of information that counters
societal entropy. The exchange of such information – be it at the
individual, group, or societal level – is called development
communication.[39]
Thailand
In Thailand, development communication is presently overseen by
Kasetsart University through its International Center for Development
Communication (ICDC). The Center's vision is to be a leading centre of
excellence in development training, communication and consultancy
services. As an extension arm of Kasetsart University its international
service mission includes building and maintaining quality services to
support organizations in their efforts for sustainable development in
social and economic sectors.[40]
Participatory development communication
The evolution of the participatory development communication school
involved collaboration between First World and Third World
development communication organizations. It focused on community
involvement in development efforts and was influenced
by Freirean critical pedagogy and the Los Baños school (Besette, 2004).

World Bank
The World Bank actively promotes this field through its Development
Communication division and published the Development
Communication Sourcebook in 2008, a resource addressing the history,
concepts and practical applications of this discipline.

Development Communication or Communication for

Development
World Bank tends to espouse and promote the title "Development
Communication" while UNICEF uses "Communication for
Development". The difference seems to be a matter of semantics and not
ideology since the end goals of these global organizations are almost
identical to each other.
UNICEF explains:
Communication for Development (C4D) goes beyond providing
information. It involves understanding people, their beliefs and values,
the social and cultural norms that shape their lives. It includes engaging
communities and listening to adults and children as they identify
problems, propose solutions and act upon them. Communication for
development is seen as a two-way process for sharing ideas and
knowledge using a range of communication tools and approaches that
empower individuals and communities to take actions to improve their
lives.
World Bank defines Development Communication "as an
interdisciplinary field, is based on empirical research that helps to build
consensus while it facilitates the sharing of knowledge to achieve a
positive change in the development initiative. It is not only about
effective dissemination of information but also about using empirical
research and two-way communications among stakeholders".
(Development Communication division, the World Bank).
Examples]
One of the first examples of development communication was Farm
Radio Forums in Canada. From 1941 to 1965 farmers met weekly to
listen to radio programs, supplemented by printed materials and
prepared questions to encourage discussion. At first, this was a response
to the Great Depression and the need for increased food production in
World War II. Later the Forums dealt with social and economic issues.
This model of adult education or distance education was later adopted in
India and Ghana. It was a forerunner of the school-on-air (SOA) concept
that provided informal education for farmers. DZLB hosted SOAs on
nutrition, pest management and cooperatives
In the 1970s in Korea the Planned Parenthood Federation succeed in
lowering birth rates and improving life in villages such as Oryu Li. It
mainly used interpersonal communication in women's clubs. Oryu Li's
success did not recur in all villages. The initial effort had the advantage
of a remarkable local leader and visits from the provincial governor.
 

Policy
Development communication policy covers formal and informal
processes where interests are defined, expressed and negotiated by
actors with different levels of power and with the goal of influencing
policy decisions.
Alexander G. Flor, University of the Philippines Open University
(UPOU), posits that development communication and the policy
sciences are linked inextricably albeit distinct and mutually exclusive
disciplines.
"Policy sciences", is the scientific study of policies and policy-making
while "policy" is the set of decisions with specific objectives and target
audience.
Development communication is intended to build consensus and
facilitate knowledge sharing to achieve positive change in development
initiatives. It disseminates information and employs empirical research,
two-way communication and dialogue among stakeholders. It is a
management tool to help assess socio-political risks and opportunities.
By using communication to bridge differences and take action towards
change, development communication can lead to successful and
sustainable results.
Development communication is a response to historic, social and
economic factors that limit access to information and citizen
participation. These include poverty and unemployment, limited access
to basic services, remote settlement patterns, lack of access to
technology, lack of information, inadequate health services, lack of
education and skills and lack of infrastructure.
Stakeholder analysis

The United Nations has recognised the importance of "the need to

support two-way communication systems that enable dialogue and that
allow communities to express their aspirations and concerns and
participate in decisions...." Such two-way interactions can help expose
local reality. Keune and Sinha claim that community involvement in
development communication policy is important, as they are the
"ultimate and perhaps the most important beneficiaries of development
communication policies and planning".
Development communication policy science
Development communication and the policy sciences provide a distinct
role of development communication that is apart from traditional mass
communication, its purposive nature (Flor, 1991). With this,
communication strategies deemed at sustainable development are hereby
presented (Servaes & Malikhao (2007): a) Behavior Change
Communication.
Flor (1991) argues the importance of application of knowledge in social
sciences where most of policy principles are drawn from. In the conduct
of developmental activities, the role of communication is critical as it
influences participation of individuals given that relevant information is
well-disseminated. For instance, communication media are critical in
creating awareness, generating public interest and demand, and placing
the issue on the public agenda and building social support (Servaes,
2008).

Although the two terms “development” and “communication” can be

treated separately but in the context of development communication as a
field, the term communication plays a critical role in the development of
the society. Communication implies the use of various media where
people have a means to share and understand the information that will
bring development in the society. Communication is thus, necessary
towards community development. Moreover, although development
communication has been given various definitions by scholars and other
communication experts, Kumar (2011) purposely outlined the three main
concepts in defining development communication. These are;
a. Development communication is purposive communication.
b. Development communication is goal-oriented.
c. Development communication deals with two types of
audiences: (1) communication scholars, experts, and professionals; (2)
the people.
Additionally, development communication is considered a social
conscience as it takes into consideration the lives of the people. It is
directly concerned with rural and urban problems, which operates in two
roles: transforming role and socializing role. 
Picard and Pickard (2017) therefore came up with the following rubric
list of potential principles that they believe are crucial in crafting a much
reflective communication policy:

1. Meeting fundamental communication and

content needs;
2. Providing effective ability for public use of
media and communications;
3. Promoting diversity/plurality in ownership of
media and content available;
4. Affording protection for users and society;
5. Providing transparency and accountability;
6. Pursuing developmental and economic
benefits; and
7. Pursuing equitable and effective policy
outcomes.
"Communication and Culture, Conflict and Cohesion" is a book edited
by Alexander G. Flor (2002), an expert on Knowledge Management for
Development, which discusses the need for convergence in society
through inter-cultural communication, using case studies in Malaysia,
Indonesia, and the Philippines. It also examines environmental conflicts,
indigenous peoples, and the official development assistance in the
Philippines. In the book, Flor noted that communication and culture are
“inextricably linked”. Societal conflict in this age of informatization is a
“function of culture caused by a dysfunction of societal
communication”. The quality and degree of societal communication –
the mass media and education—determine the ways that cultures are
exposed to others. The higher the quality and degree of inter-cultural
communication, the lower the propensity for conflict, and vice versa..
One of the first steps to help repair the situation is for communication
policy scientists to “begin with tolerance as a short-term solution, and
understanding as a long-term solution”. Tolerance and understanding
require “good communication” from both ends of the spectrum that are
striving to achieve “mutual understanding” – the goal of Kincaid (1979)
for communication in his Convergence Model. The concept of
convergence looks at the communication process as cyclical between
source and receiver, and interactive between their message and
feedback. “With convergence comes cohesion.” Mutual understanding
achieved through communication helps preclude conflicts, and
encourages cohesion among the world's cultures.

HUMAN COMMUNICATION
This is an important aspect for development communication because it is
people-centred. The people need to communicate with one another for
their own development. The people behind the development is reaching
out to the people who need development. That is human communication.
SPEEDY TRANSFORMATION
This represents the social change that will happen to the community. All
the researches made in able to identify the problem must put into action
for the transformation of the lives of the people in the community.
POVERTY
The greatest challenge in development communication is poverty. Even
in the Millennium Development Goals of United Nations, poverty is at
the top of the list that needs to address with the hope of eradicating it in
the future. Because of poverty, many people are experiencing
malnutrition, unemployment and illiteracy which adds to the burden of
the people.