Faculty of Chemical Engineering
UiTM Pulau Pinang
CEV544
PROCESS CONTROL AND
INSTRUMENTATIONS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, student should be
able to:
Explain the working principles of several
types of final control element.
Calculate the correct size of control valve
for a given flow
VALVE
VALVE
Unit 1: Process Control Loop
Process control loop
Pressure
Flow
Level
Process Temperature
pH
dP cell
Capacitance
I/P
Sensor Radar, Sonic
Magnetic
Resistance
IR/Laser
Transmitter 4-20 mA
1-5 Vdc
Controller PID
Fuzzy logic
Transducer 4-20 mA
3-15 psig
Linear
Control valve Equal percentage
© Abdul Aziz Ishak, Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia (2009)
Valve
The most important aspects of control valves:
1. Selection of their action and fail position
2. Capacity and sizing
3. Flow characteristics
4. Gain
5. Transfer function
Action (A)
Control valve
• Most common final control elements
• Adjusting the flow that affect the controlled
variables.
• Act as a variable restriction in a process pipe.
• The controller output signal positions the valve,
determining the valve position (determine the
degree of restriction to the flow).
• The controller output signal is the input to the
valve, and the flow is the output of the valve
Introduction
• Purpose
to regulate flow of any phase (liquid, gas, fluid
and mixed phases) that could pass through it.
At the moment, solid phase (such as sand,
flour, sugar) is not possible.
• Chemical process applications
>80% of final control element found in chem.
proc. ind.
• Symbols
=
Construction
Actuator
Body
Plug
Seat
The control valve actuator
• air pressure actuator is the most common to adjust the position of
control valves
• The controller signal m(t) is in percent controller output (%CO), as
opposed to mA or psig
• the actuator convert the controller output m(t), into the valve
position, vp(t)
• The valve position usually expressed as a fraction –varies between
zero and unity.
• When the valve position is zero – the valve is closed and
the flow is zero
• When the valve is unity –the valve is fully opened and the
flow is maximum.
• For full range valve actuator, a 1% change in controller
output results 0.01 change in fraction valve position.
• Most control valves use a full range actuator
Control valve action
• What do I want to do when energy supply fails?
• When the safest position of the valve is the closed
position
–specify a ‘fail‐closed’ (FC) valve
–this valve required energy to open and is also called ‘air‐
to‐open’ (ATO) valve
• When the safest position of the valve is the
opened position
–specify a ‘fail‐open’ (FO) valve
–this valve required energy to close and is also called ‘air‐
to‐close’ (ATC)
Selection Criteria
Valve action: ATO vs. ATC
Air-to-closed (ATC) or Fail open (FO). Air‐to‐open (ATO) or Fail closed (FC). Use to
Use to allow flow of fluid during loss of prevent flow when no pneumatic air supply.
pneumatic air supply. This action may This action may prevent hazardous chemical or
save overheating of temperature related flammable fluid from endangering lives.
processes such as catalyst heating or
heating of polimerization process.
compare
compare
compare
compare
• What we want each valves to do if the
3 electrical or air supply were fail?
• 1‐fail‐closed –prevent high steam flow
that could vaporize all the liquid and
overheat the coil
• 2 ‐ fail‐closed – keep the liquid in the
1
tank
• 3‐ fail‐open – allow the vapor to flow
out and prevent the vapor pressurized
2
the tank
• The action of the valve determine the sign of the
gain of the valve
• Air‐to‐open valve has a positive gain
• Air to‐closed valve has a negative gain
• Formula relating valve position to the controller
output
Exercise
– If 10 psig is sent to the control valve, what is the
valve position?
• For air‐to‐close system
• For air‐to‐open system
TYPE OF CONTROL VALVES
• Purpose of control valve
• For throttling purposes and general flow
control
• Control valve is classify into 2 categories:
• Reciprocating stem
• Rotating stem
• Reciprocating stem
– globe valve
» the most common valves in existence.
» The globe valve derives its name from
the globular shape of the valve body.
» The essential principle of globe valve
operation is the perpendicular
movement of the disk away from the
seat.
» Valve is divided into 2 areas:
• Actuator – converts the energy
input into mechanical motion
• Body
• Example of globe valve
– Single seated sliding stem globe valve
– Double seated sliding stem globe valve
• Reciprocating stem
– Three way valves
» Split one stream into two other stream
» Blend two steam into one stream
– Y‐style valves
» Commonly used in molten metal or cryogenic service
– Pinch or diaphragm valves
» Consist of some kind of flexure that can be moved
together to open or close the area of flow.
» Commonly used for highly corrosive fluids, slurries,
high‐viscosity liquids, some food processing
– Gate valves
» Mainly used as block valve
» Fully open or fully closed services.
Gate valve Y type valve
3 ways valve Pinch valve
• Rotating stem
– Butterfly valve
• consist of a disk rotating about a
shaft
• A flat circular plate is positioned in
the center of the pipe
• Require minimum space for
installation and provide high‐
capacity flow at low cost
‐ Ball valve
• Valve that opens by turning a handle
attached to a ball inside the valve.
• The ball has a hole, or port, through
the middle so that when the port is in
line with both ends of the valve, flow
will occur
• provide high‐capacity flow at low cost
Control valve actuator
• converts the energy input, either pneumatic or electrical
into mechanical motion to open or close the valve.
Pneumatically operated diaphragm
actuators
• Working principle – pneumatic
signal pressure is sent to the air
chamber of diaphragm actuator.
• The pressure act on the diaphragm
to produce a pressing force which
compress a spring to cause the
movement of the rod and valve
stem.
Electrohydraulic and electromechanical actuator
– most common one – solenoid
actuator
– By making or breaking an electrical
current signal
– When current flows through the coil, a
magnetic field forms around the coil.
– The magnetic field attracts the
armature toward the center of the
coil. As the armature moves upward,
the spring collapses and the valve
opens.
– When the circuit is opened and current
stops flowing to the coil, the magnetic
field collapses. This allows the spring
to expand and shut the valve.
• Piston Actuators
Used when maximum thrust output is required
along with fast response
When the pressure of the supply air is high
enough, the actuator forces are higher than with
diaphragm actuators
Working against high process pressure
The compressed air is applied to a solid piston
contained within a solid cylinder.
Question
Determine type of valve. FC or FO? Why?
OTHER FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT
Metering pump
A metering pump is a pump used to pump liquids
at adjustable flow rates which are precise when
averaged over time.
Delivery of fluids in precise adjustable flow rates
is sometimes called metering.
Although metering pumps can pump water, they
are often used to pump chemicals, solutions, or
other liquids.
Many metering pumps are rated to be able to
pump into a high discharge pressure.
Piston pump
Variable speed drive
A variable speed drive is a piece of equipment
that regulates the speed and rotational force,
or torque output, of an electric motor
Electrical
AC Drive Motor
supply
Supply power 2.Drive regulate power into
Motor received
into AC Drive motor
AC power from
3. Inside drive, AC convert
driver
to DC
4. DC power insert to
capacitor to smooth out the
wave form
5. DC power goes to
inverter and convert back
to AC
Source of information: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VbswgXV0eu8 ( retrieved 28/4/2015)
Solenoid valve
The solenoid valves are used to control the flow of the
liquid or the gas (called as fluids) in the pipeline or in
certain process.
The solenoid valve is the electromechanical valve
comprising of the solenoid coil and a plunger which is
connected to the stem of the valve.
In solenoid valves the core around which the insulated coil
is wound is hollow.
In this hollow portion there is round shaft like plunger or
piston that can move up and down inside the hollow space.
The plunger is connected to the spring that keeps it in place
and controls its motion (refer the figure below for various
parts of the solenoid valve).
Source: http://www.brighthubengineering.com/manufacturing-technology/56397-parts-of-the-solenoid-valve-how-
solenoid-valve-works/#imgn_1, (Retrieved on 28/4/2015)
Solenoid valve
• Sense the process
Sensor • Send current signal to S.V.
• Current is passed through S.V and get energized.
Solenoid
valve
• The magnetic field is generated to trigger plunger.
• Move upward / downward to open and close
Plunger orifice
• Open/Close based on the plunger movement
Orifice
Control valve
Capacity and sizing
CONTROL VALVE CAPACITY AND SIZING
Control valve capacity and sizing
• To regulate flow, the flow capacity of the control valve
varies from zero when the valve is closed to a maximum
when the valve is fully opened.
• Flow capacity of a control valve is determine by its capacity
factor or flow coefficient, Cv
• Cv is the flow in US gallon per minute (gpm) that flow
through the valve at a pressure drop of 1 psi across the
valve.
• e.g valve with Cv of 25 can deliver 25 gpm of water when it
has a 1 psi pressure drop.
• Liquid
‐Liquid flow through the valve
Conversion unit
Mass flow , lb/h =
• Compressible flow (Gas or vapor)
‐equation of gas or vapor flow in cubic feed per hour, at
o
standard conditions of one atm and 60 F
• Mass rate through the valve:
•
w is gas flow in lb/h
Mw is average molecular weight of the gas
A 3‐in Masoneilan valve with full trim has a capacity factor of 110 gpm/(psi)1/2 when
fully opened. The pressure drop across the valvel is 10 psi. Calculate the flow of a gas
with average molecular weight of 35 when the valve inlet conditions are 100 psig
and 100 oF
Gas Mw=35, G=35/29 = 1.207, P1=100+14.7 =114.7 psia, T=100+460
=560 oR, Cf=0.9
Sizing of control valves
• Sizing control valve for liquid service
– Flow through the valve
– Pressure drop across the valve
– Specific gravity of the liquid
• Sizing control valve for compressible flow
– Flow through the valve
– Pressure drop across the valve
– Specific gravity of the liquid
– Inlet pressure and temperature
– Average molecular weight of the fluid
• For sizing the valve, use the information to calculate
the Cv coefficient
• Once the Cv coefficient is known select a valve that is
large enough for the service.
• Generally, the calculated Cv falls between two
different valve sizes. Select the larger valve.
• Capacity factor/ flow coefficient =
f = flow through the valve at nominal production rate (nominal flow )
‐ obtained from the process steadystate design conditions.
pv = pressure drop across the valve, psi
Gf =specific gravity of liquid
• The valve coefficient must be greater than the one
calculated from the equation
• Ratio of the valve coefficient when the valve is fully open
opened to the valve coefficient at nominal flow =
overcapacity factor of the valve
• Calculate the overcapacity factor of the valve,
Cv ,max
Cv
• Overcapacity factor 1.5 for 50% overcapacity
• Overcapacity factor 2 for 100% overcapacity
Example
A control valve is to regulate the flow of steam into a
distillation column reboiler with a design nominal flow of
16,100 lb/h. The supply steam is saturated at 20 psig. Size
the control valve for a pressure drop of 5 psi and 100%
overcapacity. Assume Cf = 0.8. Given the molecular weight
of steam, Mw is 18lb/mole. The steam saturation
temperature is 259oF.
• Answer
• The valve pressure is 20+14.7 =34.7 psia,
• The specific gravity is G=18/29 =0.621, assuming Cf =0.8
• The Tinlet = 259 + 460 = 719 oR
• For 100% overcapacity, the valve coefficient when fully opened
Masoneilan’s valve catalog
• Cv, max is between 640 and 1000
• Therefore valve size is 10 inch
Exercise
• A control valve is used to regulate the flow of steam. The
nominal flow of the steam is 180,000scfh. The valve condition
are 100 psig and 60oF, and the outlet pressure is 80 psig. Size
the control valve for 100% overcapacity. Steam MW= 18 and
Cf=0.8. (Masoneilan)
Selection Criteria
Capacity and sizing
P in psi
P
Q Cv
S .G . Fluid S.G. Q
Flowrate
In gpm
Example
Calculate the Cv of a control valve Q 12 .5
when a 12.5 gpm fluid having a SG of Cv 3
0.8 pass through it. The pressure P 14
drop across the control valve is 14 S .G . 0 .8
psi.
Selection Criteria
Control valve size selection
Select an equal percentage control valve for the following condition. (S.G=1)
Flow condition Flowrate, gpm Pressure drop, psi Valve lift, %
Maximum 120 10 80
Normal 42 15 50
Minimum 13 20 20
Flow condition Flowrate, Pressure Valve Cv Cv
gpm drop, psi lift, % calculated actual
Maximum 120 10 80 37.9 37.3
Normal 42 15 50 10.8 10.8
Maximum 13 20 20 2.9 2.93
Contiunue on next page for valve rangeability calculation…
Selection Criteria
Control valve rangeablity
The size of an equal percentage control valve
= 2”
ISSUES ON CONTROL VALVE
• What make a control valve becomes linear,
equal percentage or quick opening control
valve?
• Why flashing and cavitation are serious
problem in control valve?
• What causing flashing and cavitation in a
control valve?
What make a control valve becomes linear, equal
percentage or quick opening control valve?
The amount of flow produced with
respect to steady increment in
stem travel.
Why flashing and cavitation are serious
problem in control valve?
Erosion
What causing flashing and
cavitation in a control valve?
• Flashing • Cavitation
Pressure of the liquid falls below If pressure recovery experienced by
its vapor pressure, liquid change the liquid is enough to raise the
phase to vapor phase. pressure above the vapor pressure
of the liquid, the vapor bubbles will
start collapsing/imploding
What causing flashing and cavitation
in a control valve?
INSTALL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS
• When the pressure drop in the line and equipment in series
with a valve is significant compared with pressure drop across
the valve, the valve pressure drop varies with the flow
through the line.
• Variation of flow with valve position to be different from the
variation of the Cv coefficient.
• Installed flow characteristics of the valve are different from
the inherent Cv characteristic.
There is total pressure drop , Δ po that is independent of
flow
Total pressure differential available across the valve plus
the
line and equipment
• Flow
kL= constant friction coefficient for the line, fitting, equipment psi/(gpm)2
• Maximum flow
• Rangeability
Control valve characteristic
• The Cv coefficient (flow coefficient) of a control valve depends
on the valve position.
• Varies from zero (when the valve is closed, vp=0) to a
maximum value, Cv,max (when the valve is fully opened)
• The variation in the Cv allows the valve to continuously
regulate the flow
• The particular function relating the Cv coefficient to the valve
position is known as inherent valve characteristics.
• 3 common valve characteristics: quick‐opening, linear, equal
percentage.
Selection Criteria
Valve characteristics: Linear, equal percentage and quick opening.
What make a control valve becomes linear, equal
percentage or quick opening control valve?
The amount of flow produced with
respect to steady increment in
stem travel.
• Quick opening
– not suitable for regulating flow because most of the variation
in the valve coefficient takes place in the lower third of the
valve level
– very little variation in coefficient takes place for most of the
valve travel
– appropriate for relief valves and for on‐off control system
• Two characteristics normally used to regulate flow
are : linear and equal percentage
• linear
– The function for linear characteristics
Cv (vp)=Cv,max vp
‐ Produce a coefficient proportional to the valve opening
‐ Used when the process is linear and the pressure drop
across the valve do not vary with flow
‐ 50% valve position = 50% Cv of its maximum coefficient
• equal percentage
– The function for equal percentage characteristics
Cv (vp)=Cv,max αvp‐1 α = rangeability parameter having a
value of 50 or 100
50 is most common
‐ Produce a exponential function to the valve opening
result in equal relative / percentage increments
‐ Used when the pressure drop across the valve do not vary
with flow, and with process which the gain decreases
when the flow through the valve increases.
‐ Exponential function has a property that equal increments
in valve position result in equal relative or percentage
increments in the valve coefficient
‐ When increasing the valve position by 1% the flow
increases by 1% of its value at the past valve position.
Question
Valve characteristics: Linear, equal percentage and quick opening.
What will be the flowrate when the Example
indicator shows 0.75? 8 gpm
Quick opening
Flow coef. =
6 gpm
Flowrate =
Linear
Flow coef. = 4 gpm
Flowrate =
Equal percentage 2 gpm
Flow coef. =
Flowrate =
0 gpm
• Valve rangeability
– Also called turn down ratio
– Ratio of the maximum controllable flow to the
minimum controllable flow.
– Measure of the width of operating flows the valve
can control
– Common way to define the maximum and
minimum flow at 95 and 5% valve position
– Another definition uses 90 and 10% valve
positions
• If the pressure drop across the valve is independent
of flow, the flow through the valve is proportional to
its Cv coefficient. We can calculate the valve
rangeability from its inherent characteristics.
• linear characteristic Cv (vp)=Cv,max vp
– Rangeability = 0.95/0.05 = 19
• Equal percentage characteristic
– Rangeability =α‐0.05 / α‐0.95 = α 0.9
• α = 50 , rangeability =33.8 Cv (vp)=Cv,max αvp‐1
• α = 100 , rangeability =63.1
• Quick opening characteristic
– Rangeability = 3 (small range)
CONTROL VALVE GAIN & TRANSFER
FUNCTION
Control valve gain and transfer function
Gain
• Gain of the valve – change in output divided by the
change in the input
• Output of valve – flow
• Input of the valve is the controller output signal (in
percent controller output)
df gpm Ib/hr or scfh
Kv
dm %CO
• The valve gain obtained from three term
– Dependence of the valve position on the controller output
– Dependence of the Flow coefficient, Cv on the valve position
– Dependence of the Flow on the flow coefficient , Cv
dvp dCv df
Kv
dm dvp dCv
• Dependence of the valve position on the controller
output
– Simply the conversion of percent controller output to
fraction valve position
– +ve sign for valve fails closed (air‐to‐open)
– ‐ve sign for valve fails open (air to close)
=
• Dependence of the Flow coefficient, Cv on the
valve position
– Linear characteristic
‐ Equal percentage
• Dependence of the Flow on the flow coefficient , Cv
– For liquid service
• Constant valve pressure drop
• Variable valve pressure drop
Constant valve pressure drop
• The gain of a valve with linear characteristic
=
The gain of a valve with equal percentage
characteristic
Variable valve pressure drop
• The gain of a valve with linear characteristic
• The gain of a valve with equal percentage
characteristic
•
Question 1
• Find the gain and the valve position
• Cv,max=2000
• Cv=500
• Density of liquid =800kg/m3
• Inlet pressure =100 psig
• Outlet pressure =80 psig
• α (rangeability parameter) = 50
• Consider both a valve with linear characteristics
and equal percentage valve
• Transfer function
Question 2
• Using the valve gain obtained in Question 1,
1. Write the transfer function of the valve if the
time constant of the valve actuator is 0.3 min
2. Draw the block diagram of the valve
